uponthegrowthofmaterialconsumptionandareasonableregulationofthegrowthofpopulation。For，asluxuryandmaterialwasteareseenlargelytoariseasinstrumentsforthedisplayofindividualprowessincompetitiveindustry，theremovalofthatcompetitionfromfieldswhichyieldlargemeansforsuchdisplaywouldnecessarilyquenchthezestwhichitexhibits，aswellasstopthesourcesofsuchextravagantexpenditure。Forwhenprofusedisplayofmaterialapparatusisnolongerpossible，thenaturaldesireforpersonaldistinction，whichisthedeepest-rootedofallpersonaldesires，willtendmoreandmoretofindexpressioninthoseartsofrefinedlivingwhicharemoretrulypersonalinthattheycausethemoreintellectualandspiritualqualitiesofpersonalitytoshineforth。If，forthequantitativedisplayofmaterialgoods，therecangraduallybesubstitutedaqualitativedisplayofspiritualgoods，thischangewillbeattendedbyacorrespondingchangeineconomicactivities。Therewillbeareductioninthecoarserformsofproductiveenergymakinglargedraftsuponthematerialresourcesofnature，andanincreaseofthehigherformsofenergywhosedraftsonthesematerialresourcesarerelativelysmall。

Theproportionofnon-materialtomaterialwealthwillincrease，andtherewillbeacorrespondingincreaseintheproportionofproductiveactivitiesthatcontainlargefactorsofcreativeinterest。Everyenlargementofthescopeforfreeindividualexpressionthrougheconomicdemand，evenforpurelymaterialgoods，willhaveanecessaryeffectincurbingthedominionofmachineryandofroutinelabour。Forsocialarrangementswhichenableandinciteeachconsumertoseekamorepersonalsatisfactionofhisindividualneedswillforceproducerstostudytheseindividualneedsandsatisfythem。Thiscannotbedonebymeremachine-economy，whichrestsupontheoppositehypothesisthatlargenumbersofconsumerswillconsenttosinktheirindividualdifferencesofneedandtasteacceptingcertainroutineformsofgoodswhichdonotexactlymeettherequirementsofanyoneofthem。Itis，therefore，reasonabletoexpectthatamoreequalandequitabledistributionofincomewillevokeinthemassesofpopulation，whonowconsenttoconsumecommon"routine"goodsbecausetheycannotaffordtoconsulttheirparticulartastesandpreferences，amorepersonalanddiscriminativedemand，whichwillsetstrictlimitsuponthemachineeconomyandcallforalargerapplicationofindividualskillinthevariouscrafts。

Orif，valuingmorehighlyasfieldsforpersonalexpressionthelessmaterialelementsintheirstandardofliving，theystillconsenttoutiliseroutineindustryforthesatisfactionoftheircommonphysicalneeds，theywillapplyanincreasingproportionoftheirinterestsandtheirincomestotheacquisitionandenjoymentofthosegoods，artistic，intellectual，emotional，whicharemoreennoblingalikeintheirproductionandtheirconsumption。

§；7Afinalworduponpopulation。Istherenotreasontobelieveandhopethatthissounderdistributionofworkandwealthwillcontributetoasatisfactorysolutionbothofthequantitativeandthequalitativepopulationquestion？ifwomenwerenolongerforcedbyeconomicpressureintomarriagesforwhichtheyhadnonaturalinclination，muchunfitparentageandmuchincompetentnurturewouldbeaverted。Iftheywerefreetoliveunmarried，ortochoosethefatheroftheirchildrenandthesizeoftheirfamily，thenormalcurrentofthoseinstinctsmakingforthepreservationandinstinctoftherace，obstructedbyartificialbarriersofeconomiccircumstances，wouldberestoredtotheirnaturalcourse。Ifthesupportofayoungfamilywerenolongeraheavyandinjuriousstrainupontheeconomicresourcesoftheparentsandtheirfuturecareeragraveanxiety，thehumanloveofchildrenandtheattractionsofacompletehomelifewouldprobablycheckthatrapiddeclineofthebirth-ratewhichtomanyisoneofthedarkestfeaturesofourpresentorder。Itwouldnot，indeed，restoretherecklesspropagationofformertimeswhichimposedonparents，andchieflyuponthemother，aburdeninjuriousinitsprivateincidenceanddetrimentaltosociety。Butwhilethebettereconomicorderwouldstopcompulsorymarriagesandundesiredandthereforeundesirableoffspring，itwouldrestoretheplayofthenormalphiloprogenitiveinstincts。Theneteffectwouldseemtobesomeretardationofthedeclineofbirth-rateinthosetypesoffamilieswheretheconditions，physicalandpsychical，appearfavourabletogoodnatureandgoodnurtureforchildren，andapositiveeliminationofcertaintypesofunionunfavourabletosoundoffspring。

Thetotaleffectuponthequantitativeissuewouldofcoursedependuponthebalancebetweenthisfreerplayofthephiloprogenitiveinstinctandtheotherinfluences，notdirectlyaffectedbyeconomiccauses，whichmakeforsmallerfamilies。Butthatthequalityorcharacterofthepopulationmustbeimprovedbythemorenaturalplayoftherejectiveandselectiveinfluenceshereindicatedcanhardlyadmitofcontroversy。Indeed，itmaywellbeurgedthatthecrowningtestimonytothevalidityofthehumanlawofdistributionwillconsistinthehigherqualityofhumanlifeitwillevokebyliberatingandnourishingthenaturalartofeugenicsinsociety。

NOTES:

1。Ruskinhadacuriousnotionofthissort(cf。TimeandTide，par。107，MuneraPulveris，par。109，ForsClavigera，Letterlxxxii)，andtherecentAmerican"ScientificManagement"appearstoendorseit。

2。TimeandTide，par。123。

CHAPTERXXII:SOCIALSCIENCEAND

SOCIALART

§；1。Thetaskofahumanvaluationofindustryinvolvedattheoutsetthearbitraryassumptionofastandardofvalue。Thatstandardconsistedinaconceptionofhumanwell-beingapplicabletothevariousformsofhumanlife，manasindividual，asgroupornation，ashumanity。Startingfromthatconceptionofthehealth，physicalandspiritual，oftheindividualhumanorganism，whichisofwidestacceptance，weproceededtoapplytheorganicmetaphortothelargergroupings，soastobuildupanintelligiblestandardofsocialwell-being。Thisstandard，atoncephysicalandspiritual，staticandprogressive，wasassumedtobeofsuchakindastoprovideaharmonyofindividualwelfareswhenthegrowingsocialnatureofmanwastakenintodueaccount。

Withthestandardofhumanwell-beingwethenproceededtoassignvaluestotheproductiveandtheconsumptiveprocessesofwhichindustryconsists，examiningthemintheirbearinguponthewelfareoftheindividualsandthesocietiesengaginginthem。

Nowthismodeofprocedure，theonlypossible，ofcourseinvolvedanimmensepetitioprincipii。Theassumptionofanycloseagreementastothenatureofindividualwell-being，stillmoreofsocialwell-being，waslogicallyquiteunwarranted。

Economicvalueshave，indeed，anagreed，exactandmeasurablemeaning，derivedfromthenatureofthemonetarystandardinwhichtheyareexpressed。

Now，nosuchstandardofthehumanvalueofeconomicgoodsorprocessescanbeestablished。Yetwepretendedtosetupastandardofsocialvalueandtoapplyacalculusbaseduponit，claimingtoassessthehumanworthwhichunderliestheeconomiccostsandutilitiesthatenterintoeconomicvalues。

Hasthisprocedureprovedutterlyillicit？Iventuretothinknot。

Thoughattheoutsetourstandardwasonlyageneralphrasecommittingnobodytoanything，theprocessofconcreteapplication，intestingtheactualformsofworkandwealthwhichmakeupindustry，gavetoitacontinualincreaseofmeaning。Whilethewidestdivergencewouldbefoundintheformaldefinitionsofsuchtermsas"humanwelfare"or"socialprogress，"

alargeandgrowingbodyofagreementwouldemerge，whenasufficientnumberofpracticalissueshadbeenbrought-upforconsideration。Thetruthofourstandardandthevalidityofourcalculusareestablishedbythisworkingtest。Itisnotwonderfulthatthisshouldbeso，forthenatureandcircumstancesofmankindhavesomuchincommon，andtheprocessesofcivilisationaresopowerfullyassimilatingthem，astofurnishacontinuallyincreasingcommunityofexperienceandfeeling。Itis，ofcourse，thisfundof"commonsense"thatconstitutesthetruecriterion。Theassumptionthat"commonsense"isadequateforataskatoncesograveanddelicatemay，indeed，appearverydisputable。Grantingthathumanexperiencehassomuchincommon，canitbeclaimedthatthereasoningandthefeelingbasedonthisexperiencewillbesocongruousandsosoundastofurnishanyreliableguideforconduct？Surely"commonsense"initsbroadestpopularsensecangoaverylittlewaytowardssuchataskasahumaninterpretationofindustry。

Thereisnodoubtagooddealofforceinthisobjection。Ifwearetoinvoke"commonsense"forthepurposesofaninterpretationoravaluation，itmustevidentlybewhatistermedan"enlightenedcommonsense。"Andhereatoncewearebroughtintodangerlestenlightenmentshouldnotsupplywhatisrequired，viz。，aclearerormorefullyconsciousmodeofcommonsense，butadistortedorsophisticatedmode。Howrealthisdangeris，especiallyintheconductofpublicaffairs，mayberecognisedfromtheexcessivepartplayedbycertainhighlyconsciousandover-vocalinterestsofthecommercialandintellectualclassesintheartofgovernment。ThemostpressingtaskofCivilisationintheself-governingnationsofourtimeissotospreadtheareaofeffectiveenlightenmentastosubstitutethecommonsenseofthemanyforthatofthefew，andtomakeitprevail。

Itisthiscommonsense，moreorlessenlightened，thatthedisinterestedstatesmantakesforthesanctionofhisreadingofthegeneralwillwhichheendeavourstoexpressintheconductofpublicaffairs。Thatitisneveratanytimeacertain，aperfectlycoherent，aprecisecriterion，willbereadilyadmitted。Butthatitissufficientlyintelligible，sufficientlysound，isthenecessarypresuppositionofalldemocraticstatecraft。And，sofarasitisthusserviceable，itsuppliesavalidstandardandavalidcalculusofsocialvalues。Thoughthereadingofthisstandardandtheapplicationofthiscalculuswillalwaysbesubjecttosomebiasofpersonalidiosyncrasy，theweightofthegeneraljudgmentcommonlyprevailsinthemoreimportantprocessesofsocialvaluation。

But，inpinningourfaithtoenlightenedcommonsenseforaninterpretationorvaluationofindustry，wemustnotallowourselvestobedeceivedastotheamountof"scientificaccuracy"whichattendssuchaprocedure。

Whilethisstandardcanandmustsupplytherulesandmeasurementswhichweapplyintheprocessesofdetailedanalysisandcomparisonbywhichweestimatethecostsandutilitiesandthenethumanvaluesofthevariousindustrialactivitiesandproducts，wemustnotputintothisstandardastabilityitdoesnotpossess，orintothequantitativemethodsitusesanauthorityforsocialconductwhichtheyareinherentlydisqualifiedfromyielding。

§；2。ThescienceandartofsoCietyhavesufferedsomuchfromwantofexactandmeasuredinformationthatitisonlyrightandnaturalforimmenseimportancetobeattachedtothecollectionofmassesoforderedandmeasuredsocialfacts。Ifasufficientnumberoftrainedinvestigatorscouldbesettoworktogather，measure，siftandtabulate，thevariousordersofcrudefactrelatingtotheemployment，wages，housing，expenditure，health，thrift，education，andotherconcreteconditionsofthepoorergradesoftownandcountrydwellers，itseemsasifanumberofaccurateandvalidgeneralisationswouldemergebyclearinductionuponwhichcouldbeconstructedanabsolutelyscientifictreatmentofpoverty。Or，again，totakeanarrowerandmoredistinctivelyeconomicissue，thatoftheshorterworkingday。Ifacarefulseriesofobservationsandexperimentscouldbemadeinanumberofrepresentativebusinesses，astotheeffectuponthesize，costandqualityofoutputproducedbygivenreductionsinthehoursoflabouramongvariousclassesofworkers，itmightappearasifanaccuratelygradedsocialeconomyoftheworkingdaycouldbeattainedbycalculations。

Butthoughstatesmen，philanthropistsandreformersaremoreandmoreinfluencedintheirjudgmentsandpoliciesbythesemeasuredfacts，nosafemechanicalrulesfortheguidanceoftheirconductinanysocialproblemcanbebaseduponthem。Thefactsandfigureswhichappearsohardandsoreliableareoftenverysoftandineffectivetoolsforthesocialpractitioner。

Thereareseveraldefectsinthemregardedasinstrumentsofsocialprogress。

Itishardlyeverpossibletoprovecausationbymeansofthem。Youmayobtainthemostexactstatisticsofhousingconditionsandofdeath-ratesforthepopulationofagroupoftowns，butyoucannotprovetowhatextent"backtoback"housesaffectinfantmortality。Nofiguresprofessingtomeasurethecausalconnectionbetweendrinkandcrimeorinsanity，incomeandbirth-rate，oranyothertwosocialphenomena，possessthedegreeofvaliditytheyclaim。Why？Becauseyoucanneverisolatethefactorscompletelyinanyorganicorsocialproblem，andyoucanneverknowhowfaryouhavefailedtoisolatethem。Youmay，indeed，byvaryingtheconditionsofyourexperimentsorobservationssufficiently，obtainpracticalproofoforganiccausation，butyoucanseldomexpressthiscausationintermsofanyquantitativeaccuracy。Stillmoreisthistrueofpsychologicalandsocialproblems。

Apurelydescriptivescienceofsocietymayattainaconsiderabledegreeofquantitativeaccuracy，butthelawsexpressingthecausalrelationsofthesemeasuredfactswillalwayslackthecertaintyofoperationandthemeasurabilityofactionbelongingtothelawsofchemistryandphysics。

Nowthechieffactswithwhichthestatesmanandthesocialreformerareconcernedinformingjudgmentsandpoliciesaretheselawsofcausalrelation，andnotthecrudemeasuredfactsthatconstitutetherawmaterialofstatistics。Thiscomparativeinexactitudeorlackofrigidityinthelawsofsocialscienceconstitutesthe。firstdifficultyinapplyingthesciencetotheartofsocialconductwiththesameamountofconfidencewithwhichthelawsofphysicsandchemistryareappliedtothemechanicalarts。Butanotherdifficultyquiteasgraveasthiswantofrigidityinsocialfactsistheinstabilityofthestandard。Inallprocessesofphysicalmeasurementitiscustomarytomakeallowancesforerrorsduetowhatiscalled"thepersonalequation，"abnormalitiesofobservationintheexperimenter。

Butthestandardofhumanvaluation，theenlightenedcommonsenseofacommunity，appliedtointerpretsocialphenomenaintermsof"utility"

or"welfare，"willevidentlybesubjecttomuchwidervariations，andtheinterpretationofthisstandardbystatesmen，orotherindividualagentsofsociety，willbesubjectagaintowideerrorsofpersonalbias。

Illustratingfromtheeconomicspherewhichisourconcern，thatspecialisationofindustriallifewhichhasmadethreequartersofourpopulationtown-dwellersandismakingournationcontinuallymoredependentuponforeignsuppliesoffood，willhaveaverydifferentvaluesetonitbythenarrowernationalismwhichbelievestheinterestsandambitionsofnationstobeirreconcilable，andbythewiderpoliticaloutlookwhichconceivestheeconomicinterdependenceofnationsasinitselfdesirableandasthebestguaranteeofnationalsecurity。Oragain，adifferenceofvieworsentimentregardingtherelativeworthofthepersonalqualitiesofenterpriseandself-relianceontheonehand，ofploddingindustryandsocialityupontheother，mustmateriallyaffectthevaluesgiventosuchphenomenaasemigration，publicprovisionagainstunemployment，copartnership，taxationofhighincomesorinheritances。

Indeeditisquitemanifestthatwitheverydifferenceoftherangeofsympathyandimaginationthemeaningwhichenlightenedcommonsensewillgivetosocialwelfare，andtoeveryfactsubmittedtothistest，willvary。

Theseconsiderationsmayseematfirstsighttoinvalidatetheentirepurposeofthisbook，theendeavourtoapplyasocialcalculusforthevaluationofindustry。Solongasthecostandutilityofeconomicmaterialandprocessisexpressedintermsofmoney，youhaveafixedstandardcapableofyieldingexactvaluations。Endeavourtoresolvethiscostandutilityintotermsofhumanwelfareordesirability，youappeartohaveadoptedafluctuatingstandardthatcangivenoserviceableinformation。

§；3。Thetruth，ofcourse，isthatascientificvaluationofanythingcanonlyproceedbywayofquantitativeanalysis。Astandardofvaluationwhichshouldregardqualitativedifferencesasultimatewouldnotbescientificatall。Itmightbeaestheticorhygienicorethical，accordingtothenatureofthequalitativedifferencesinvolved。Astrictlyscientificvaluationofwealth，orofcostorofutility，oroflifeitself，mustapplyasinglestandardofmeasurementtoallthevariousobjectsitseekstovalue，i。e。，itmustreduceallthedifferentobjectstotermsofthiscommondenominator。

Itcanmeasureandvalueallformsofpurchasablegoodsorservices，howevervariousinnature，throughthemarketprocesseswhichreducethemtoasinglemonetaryequivalent。Itcanmeasureandvaluelabour-costsofdifferentsorts，eitherbyamonetarystandardorbysomemeasureoffatigueorvitalexpenditure。Itcanmeasuretheutilityofvarioussortsoffoodoroffuel，bycomparingthequantitiesofworking-poweroroutputwhichuponanaveragetheyyield。Itcanascertainthevitalvaluesofdifferenttownsandoccupations，incomes，races，intermsoflongevity，fertility，susceptibilitytodiseases，etc。

Thismethod，essentialtoscientificanalysis，restsonanassumptionthat£；1worthofbadbooksisofthesamevalueas£；1worthofgoodbooks。Thisassumptionistrueforthepurposetowhichitisapplied，thatofamarketvaluation。Itassumesthatayear"slifeofanimbecileoraloaferisworththesameasayear"slifeofasaintoragenius，andsoitisforthepurposeofvitalstatistics。

Thisisofcourseuniversallyadmitted。Scienceproceedsbyabstraction:

itdoesnotpretendtodescribeorexplaintheindividualityorparticularqualitiesofindividualcases，buttodiscovercommonattributesofstructureorcompositionorbehaviouramongnumbersofcases，andtoexplainthemintermsofthesecommoncharacters。

Sofar，then，astheso-calledvalueofanything，oranyhappening，consistsinitsuniquenessoridiosyncrasy，thisvaluenecessarilyevadesscientificanalysis。Itisonlythecommonproperties，theregularities，theconformities，thatcountforscientificvaluation。Nay，more。Sofarassciencetakesaccountofindividualqualities，itisinthecapacityofeccentricities，i。e。，itmeasurestheamountoftheirvariationfromtheaverageornormal。Itcannotentertainthenotionthatthereisanysortofdifferencewhichisinherentlyimmeasurable，i。e。，thatthereisdifferenceinkindaswellasindegree。1

§；4。Ascientificanalysistreatsalldifferencesasdifferencesofdegree。So-calleddifferenceofqualityorkinditeitherignores，oritseekstoreducethemtoandexpressthemindifferencesofquantity。

Thisendeavourtoreducequalitativetoquantitativedifferenceisthegreatstumbling-blockinallorganicscience，butparticularlyinthedepartmentsofpsychologyandsociology。Thedifficultyisbestillustratedintherecentextensionofquantitativeanalysisintoeconomicsbythemethodofmarginalpreferences。Notcontentwiththeassumptionthattheparticularcosts，consumablequalities，etc。，ofanytwoarticlessellingfor£；1

eachmaybedisregarded，andthesinglepropertyoftheirmarketvalueabstractedforconsideration，themathematicaleconomistsnowinsistthatthestudyofmarginalpreferencesdisclosesimportantlawsofthepsychologyofindividualsandsocieties。

Thewholeprocessofexpenditureofincomeappearstoberepletewithinstancesofthecapacityofthehumanmindtomeasureandapplyaquantitativecomparisontothingswhichseemtobedifferentinkind。ItmightseemasifmydesiretohelpthestarvingpopulationofIndiainafamine，andmydesiretoattendaQueen"sHallconcertthiseveningwerefeelings，notmerelyofdifferentintensity，butofsuchwidelydifferentnaturethattheycouldnotbeaccuratelymeasuredagainsteachother。Andyetthismiracleissaidtobeactuallyperformed，whenIdecideupondueconsiderationtodividethe7s6dinmypursesoastogive5stotheFamineFundandtobuya2s6dticketfortheconcert，insteadofthemoreexpensiveticketIshouldhaveboughthadInotbeenluredtotheFaminemeeting。Imighthavegiventhewhole7s6dtotheFamineFund，andmissedtheconcert。

WhydidInot？Imusthaveperformedtheverydelicatespiritualoperationofreducingmyhumanitarianfeelingtocommontermswithmyloveofmusic，andtohavestruckabalancewhichcanonlymeanthatIconsidertheadditionalsatisfactionIwouldhavegotfromgivinganother2s6dtotheFamineFundtobealittlelessthanthesatisfactionIwouldgetfromtheconcert。

Butthis，ofcourse，isasinglecrudeinstanceofafarmoreelaborateprocessofcomparisonwhichunderliesthewholeexpenditureofmyincome。

Aftertheroutineexpenditureuponnecessariesandcomforts，whichmaybesaidtorepresentmyhabitualstandardofconsumption，hasbeendefrayed，therearevariousattractiveusestowhicheveryothersovereignandshillingmaybeput。Allsortsofdifferentappealsofpleasure，duty，pride，presstheirclaimsthroughathousanddifferentchannels。InordertoapportionmyexpenditureasIdo，Imustbeconceivedasreducingalltheseclaimstosomecommonstandardofdesirability，anddecidinghowmuchtolayoutonthis，howmuchonthat。Thatphysicalsatisfactionscanbecomparedwithoneanother，bytheapplicationofsomestandardofpleasuremayappearintelligibleenough。Butthatasenseofmoraldutycanbebroughtintodirectcomparisonwithaphysicalpleasure，orthatvariousdutiescanbecomparedinsizeorstrengthwithoneanother，wouldseemalmostimpossible。

Yetthisisdoneincessantlyandquickly，ifnoteasily。Evenwhenitisclaimedthatsomedutiesaresoparamountthatagoodmanwillrefuseto"weigh"anyotherclaimagainstthem，assigningthemavaluewhich，hesays，is"infinite，"themarginaleconomistwillnotadmittheclaimtoexemption。"Thisonlymeansthattohimthetotaldifferencebetweenthecommandofthingsinthecircleofexchangethathealreadyenjoys，andanindefinite，orunlimitedcommandofthem，doesnotweighasheavyinhismindasthedishonourorthediscomfortofthespecificthingheisrequiredtodo。Itdoesnotmeanthathisobjectionis"infinite。"itmerelymeansthatitislargerthanhisestimateofallthesatisfactionthathecouldderivefromunlimitedcommandofarticlesinthecircleofexchange，andthisisastrictly，perhapsnarrowly，limitedquantity。"2

Butthoughtherearemenwhosehonourissoincorruptibleasalwaysto"outweigh"otherconsiderations，theethicsofbriberymakeitclearthataweakersenseofhonourcanbemeasuredagainstmaterialsatisfaction，andthatisallthatseemsnecessarytosupporttheviewthatsuchqualitativedistinctionscan"bereducedtoquestionsofquantity。"Norisitmerelyamatterofthemonetaryvaluationthroughexpenditureofincomes。Preciselythesameproblemarisesinthedisposalofone"stimeorenergy。Howmuchshallbegiventotheperformanceofthisorthatpersonalorfamilyduty，torecreation，ortostudy？Inwhatproportionsshallwecombinetheseactivities？Ifacurtailmentofmoneyoroftimeisnecessary，howmuchshallbetakenfromthis，howmuchfromthatemployment？

Butitisneedlesstomultiplyexamples。Whenanyscientificvaluationistaken，allqualitiesareabstractedandquantitiesonlyarecomparedandestimated。Asineconomics，soinethics。Themoralstruggletoresistatemptationisnearlyalwayssetinscientificpsychologyasamechanicalproblem，forwhentheethicistprofessestointroducesomeimponderable"freedomofthewill"hehastothrowoverboardhisscience。A"conflictofduties，"asMr。Wicksteedrecognises，impliesthat"dutyitselfisaquantitativeconception。"3

§；5。Similarlywiththescientificpoliticianwhoseekstomakefulluseofquantitativeanalysis。Hetooiscompelledtovisualiseandrepresentthepsychologicaloperationthroughwhichapoliticaljudgmentisreachedasamechanicalone，conceivedintermsofsize，weight，strainorintensity。InhisHumanNatureinPoliticsMr。GrahamWallasgivesaveryinterestingexampleofthescientificvaluationofaprocessofpoliticalthinking，viz。，theprocessbywhichMr。Gladstone，intheautumnandwinterof1885-6，mustbeconceivedtohavearrivedathisHomeRulepolicy，"thinkingincessantlyaboutthematter"and"preparingmyselfbystudyandreflection。"

Afterdescribing，withtheaidofLordMorley"sLife，thevariousstudiesandcoursesofreflectionemployed，the"calculations"ofthestateoffeelinginEnglandandIreland，theexaminationofvarioustypesoffederation，asfoundinpastandcurrenthistory，thestatisticalreportsuponfinance，lawandotherconcreteissues，considerationsofthetimeandopportunity，theplayoftheemotionalvaluations，"theirresistibleattractionforhimofallthegrandandexternalcommonplacesoflibertyandself-government，"

Mr。Wallasseestheresultsofallthisacquisitionofknowledgeandreflectiongatheringandbeingcoordinatedintoaprobleminwhichthefactorsarequantitiesandthesolution"aquantitativesolution，""adelicateadjustmentbetweenmanyvaryingforces。"4"AlargepartofthisworkofcomplexcoordinationwasapparentlyinMr。Gladstone"scaseunconscious，"anoperationhedeclares，"ratherofartthanofscience。"Now，since"thehistoryofhumanprogressconsistsinthegradualandpartialsubstitutionofscienceforart，"itisdesirabletobringoutwithclearerconsciousness，andfortifywithgreateraccuracyofknowledge，theprocessesofpoliticalthinking。"Quantitativemethodmustspreadinpoliticsandmusttransformthevocabularyandtheassociationsofthatmentalworldintowhichtheyoungpoliticianenters。

Fortunately，suchachangeseemsatleasttobebeginning。Everyyearlargerandmoreexactcollectionsofdetachedpoliticalfactsarebeingaccumulated；

andcollectionsofdetachedfacts，iftheyaretobeusedatallinpoliticalreasoning，mustbeusedquantitatively。"5Sincetheproblemsofpoliticalconductarethusessentiallyquantitative，theycan，intheoryatanyrate，be"solved"byscience。"ThefinaldecisionswhichwillbetakeneitherbytheCommons——orbyParliamentinquestionsofadministrativepolicyandelectoralmachinerymustthereforeinvolvethebalancingofalltheseandmanymoreconsiderationsbyanessentiallyquantitativeprocess。"6

§；6。Nowhowfarisittruethatanypoliticalproblemisessentiallyquantitativeandsolublebyaquantitativeprocess？itisofcoursetobeadmittedatoncethatthescienceofstatisticswillfeedastatesman"smindwithavarietyoforderedandmeasuredfacts。Butwillthismind，workingeitherscientificallyorartistically，consciouslyorsubconsciously，gothroughadistinctivelymechanicalprocessofbalancingandmeasuringandregisteraquantitativejudgment？Ascientificsettingoftheprocessmustindeedsopresentit。But，then，ascientificsettingofanyprocesswhatsoeversetsitthusinpurelyquantitativeform。Therealissueishowfarthisscientificsettingiscompetenttointerpretandexplainthefacts，andtodeliverajudgmentwhichshallbeauthoritativefortheconductofanindividualorasociety。

Inordertotestthescientificclaimletustakewhatseemstobeaverydifferentsortofactionfromthatofthepoliticianorthebusinessman，thatoftheartist。Followthemindofthepainterasheplieshisart。Eachofhisoperationstooinvolvesconsiderationsofquantityandmeasurement，scopeandfocus，adjustment，coordination，balance，theapplicationofdefiniteblendsofcolours:optics，anatomy，andothersciencesfeedhismindwithexactknowledge。Adelicateadjustmentofquantitiesinlineandcolourisinvolvedineverypartofhisartisticoperations。Butdoestheoperationconsistofthesequantitativearrangementsandcanitbeunderstoodor"appreciated"byanalysingthem？Evidentlynot。Whynot？

Becauseinsuchananalysisorexplanationtheessentiallyqualitativeorcreativeactionoftheartist，whichgivesunityandartisticvaluetothewholeoperation，escapesnotice。Sciencekillsinordertodissect。

Sointhecaseofeveryotherart。Apoeminvolvescertainorderedarrangementsofsoundwhichmaybeexpressedinquantitativetermsofrhythmandprosody。

Butanyattemptto"resolve"itintotheseformslosesitsspirit，itsunity，itsvalueasapoem。StudentsofthedramahavesometimesexplainedorinterpretedatragedyofSophoclesorShakespeareintermsofthegradationofintensityofthevariousemotionsinvolved，thelengthofpausesofsuspense，thebalancing，reliefandinterlacingoftheplotsorepisodes，therelativestrengthorheightoftheclimaxesandsubclimaxes，thegrowingrapidityofmovementtowardsthecatastrophe。Butcanitbepretendedthatthis"mechanics"ofthedramacanfurnishastandardofappreciation，orsupplylawsaccordingtowhicha"good"dramamaybeconstructedorappreciated？

No。Anartisticoperationisessentiallyorganic，creativeandqualitative。

Noneofthesecharacterscanreallybereducedtoquantity。Sciencebyquantitativeanalysiscanonlydealwiththeskeletonnotwiththelifethatinformsit。

Ithinkthiseternalinabilityofscienceadequatelytointerpretvalue，orexplainaworkofart，willbegenerallyadmitted。Itisduetothefactthatthisworkanditsvalueareinherentlyincapableofbeingreducedtoquantities。Thedifferencebetweenonepictureandanother，onepoemandanotherisadifferenceofquality。Itisofcoursetruethatbyamerelylinguisticnecessityweoftenspeakofapictureasbeing"much"

finerthananother，andcomparethe"greatness"ofonepoetwiththatofanother。Butweareawareallthetimethatwearereallycomparingunlikes，dealingwithqualitativedifferences。Onnoothersuppositionindeedcanweunderstandthevaluationsetuponaworkofgeniusascomparedwithoneoftalent。

"Ohthelittlemore，howmuchitis，Andthelittlelesswhatworldsaway。"

Whatthendoeconomistsmeanwhentheyinsistthatqualitativedifferences，thedesiresandsatisfactionswhichhavesuchwidelydiverseoriginsandnatures，canbeweighedandmeasuredagainstoneanother，andthatproblemsofindustryareessentiallyandultimatelyquantitative？Ourexaminationofartisticactivitieshasshownthatineachcasequantitiesareinvolved，butthatinnocasedoquantitiesconstitutetheproblemofaction。Buthow，itmaybesaid，doyoudisposeoftheadmittedfactsthatbymeansofmonetaryvaluationsthesediversedesiresandsatisfactionsarereducedtoacommonstandard，arecompared，andthatacourseofconductisapparentlybaseduponthesequantitativeconsiderations？

Theansweristhatthisisanentirelyillusoryaccountofthepsychicalprocessbywhichamanlaysouthismoney，orhistime，orhisenergy。

Hedoesnottaketheseveralusestowhichhemightapplythemeansathisdisposal，reducethem，inthoughtorinfeeling，tosomecommonterm，andsomeasuretheamounthewillexpenduponeachobjectthatthe"marginal"

or"final"portionofeachuseshallbeexactlyequalintheutilityityields。The"marginalist"7iscorrectinsayingthattheutilityimputedtothelastsovereignIexpendonbreadduringtheyearmustbeconsideredtobeneithergreaternorlessthanthatimputedtothelastsovereign"sworthoftobacco，orbooks，holidayorcharitablesubscriptions。InpreciselythesamesenseitistruethatthelastbrushfulofgreenandbrownandTurkeyredexpendedonapicturehasthesameart-valuetothepainter。

Perhapstheissuecanbemadeclearerbyreferencetoanartusuallyconsideredless"fine"andmorecloselyaffectedbyquantitativeconsiderationsthanpainting，theculinaryart。Thecompositionofadishishereexpressedinproportionsofitsvariousingredients，somuchflour，somanyouncesofraisins，somanyeggs，somuchsugar，etc。Themarginalistwoulddwelluponthecrucialfactthatthelastpennyworthoftheflour，raisins，eggsandsugar，takenseverally，hadanequalvalueforthepudding，andthatthesemarginalorfinalincrementswereinsomewaycausaldeterminantsofthecompositionofthepudding，becauseinusingtheingredientsthecooktookcaretousejustsomuchofeach，andneithermorenorless。

Anditisquitetruethatthedelicacyoftheculinaryartwillinfactbedisplayedindecidingwhethertoputinanotherhandfulofraisins，anotheregg，oraspoonfulmoresugar。But，fromthestandpointoftryingtoappreciatethevirtueorworthofthedishasaculinarycreation，itcannotbeadmittedthatanyspecialimportanceorcausaldeterminationattachestothelastincrementsoftheseveralingredients。Foritisevidentthatthe"howmuch"andthereforethe"margin"ofeachingredientisitselfdeterminedbytheconceptionofthetoutensembleinthemindofthecreatororinventor。

Andthisevidentlyappliestoeveryformofcompositionembodyingsomeunityofdesignorpurpose，whetherthetreatmentofasubjectinpictorialordramaticart，themakingofanewdish，theconstructionofamachine，thearrangementofabusiness，orthelayingoutofagardenorafortune。

Sofarasaneconomicaluseismadeofmaterialsormeansofanykindfortheattainmentofanyendthismarginalequivalenceisimplied。Thescientificanalysisofanycompositearrangement，mechanical，organic，conscious，involvesthismarginalassumption。Itisanaxiomofall"economy"whatsoever。

Butitexplainsnothing。Nay，indealingwithanyorganicbeingonanyplaneofaction，itdarkenscounsel。Itdoessoinseveralways。Firstbyassumingorassertingthatthehumanmindcananddoesgetridofqualitativedifferencesbyreferringthemtoaquantitativestandard:secondly，byassumingorassertingthatorganicunitycanbebrokenupintoitsconstituentpartsandexplainedintermsofthesemeasuredparts；thirdly，byassumingorassertingauniformityofnaturewhichconflictswiththe"novelties"

inwhichcreativeenergyexpressesitself。Allthesefallaciesarejustasmuchinvolvedintheattempttoexplaintheexpenditureofanincomeasapurelyquantitativeproblem，asintheattempttoexplaintheart-valueofapictureintermsoftherespectivequantitiesoflineandcolour。

Ineachcasetherootfallacyisthesame，theillicitsubstitutionoftheabstract"quantity"fortheactualstuff，whichisalwaysqualitativeandisneveridenticalinanytwocases，oratanytwotimes。

§；7。Inlayingoutmyincome，Idonotinfactcompareallmyseveralneedsortastes，andhavingassignedsomuchutilityordesirabilitytoeach，planmyexpendituresoastospendoneachjustasmuchasitisworth，equalisingallexpenditureatthemarginssoastomaximisetheaggregate。EvenBenjaminFranklinorSamuelSmileswouldnotreallydothis，thoughtheymightthinktheydid，andperhapsdrawupschedulestoenforcethenotion。SofarasIactlikeafree，rationalbeing，notacreatureofblindcustomorroutine，Iemployallmypersonalresourcesofknowledge，taste，affection，energy，time，andcommandofmaterialresources，intryingtorealisemyidealofagoodordesirablelife。Intheexecutionofthisdesign，howeveritberegarded，self-realisationorcareer，Iutilisemyvariousresourcesinamannerstrictlyanalogoustothatinwhichtheartistemploysthematerialsandinstrumentsofhisart。UponthecanvasoftimeIpaintmyself，usingallthemeansatmydisposaltorealisemyideal。Amongthesemeansismymoneyincome。Itsexpendituregoesintotheexecutionofmydesign。SofarasIamjustifiedinseparatingmyexpenditureofmoneyfromtheexpenditureofmytimeandotherresources，andinregardingthedesignasan"economicpicture，"Icanreadilyperceivethattheunityofmyartisticpurposeinvolvesanddeterminestheexpenditureofmyincomeindefiniteproportionsuponthevariousobjectswhose"consumption"contributestothedesign。Buttheseproportionsarenotdeterminedbyacalculationoftheseparatevaluesofthevariousitems。For，strictlyspeaking，theyhavenoseparatevalue，anymorethanhavethelinesorcoloursinapicture。

Onlybyconsiderationofwhatwemaytermindifferentlytheartisticororganicpurposeofthewholecanatrueappreciationorvaluationbeattained。

Thefullabsurdityofsuggestingthatanythingislearned，eitherinthewayofvaluationorofguidance，bythequantitativeanalysis，orthewonderfuldiscoveryofequivalenceofvalueatthemargins，willnowbeapparent。

Thismathematicalanalysiscandonomoretowardsexplainingtheexpenditureofincomethanexplainingtheexpenditureofpaint。Ofcourse，theexpenditureatthemarginsappearstoproduceanequalutility:thattruthisobviouslycontainedintheverylogicofthequantitativeanalysis。Butthatquantitativeanalysis，necessarilyignoring，asitdoes，thequalitativecharacterwhichtheorganicunityofthewholeconfersuponitsparts，failstoperformthepsychologicalinterpretationclaimedforit。

Sofarasitistruethatthelastsovereignofmyexpenditureinbreadequalsinutilitythelastsovereignofmyexpenditureinbooks，thatfactproceedsnotfromacomparison，consciousorunconscious，oftheseseparateitemsatthismargin，butfromthepartsassignedrespectivelytobreadandbooksintheorganicplanofmylife。Quantitativeanalysis，inherentlyincapableofcomprehendingqualitativeunityorqualitativedifferences，canonlypretendtoreducethelattertoquantitativedifferences。Whatitactuallydoesistoignorealiketheunityofthewholeandthequalitativenessoftheparts。

Noristhisall。Itisnoteventruethatanapplicationofquantitativeanalysisdoesfindexactequivalenceofvaluesatthemargins。Takingaconcreteinstance，itisnottruethatthelastsovereignofmyexpenditureinbooksequals，oreventendsexactlytoequal，inutility，thatofmylastsovereign"sexpenditureonbread。Thiswouldbethecaseifthefuturetendedpreciselytorepeatthepast。Inthateventmyexperienceoftheeconomyoflastyear"sexpenditurewouldprogressivelycorrectanyerrors，andIshouldcometoemploymyresourceswithgreatereconomyorexactitudetotheattainmentofthesamedesign。ButIamnotthesamethisyearaslast，myenvironmentisnotthesame，myresourcesarenotthesame，andtheplanoflifeImakewillnotbethesame。ThisawkwardfactorofNovelty，involvedinorganicnature，belongstoeverycreativeart，beingindeedoftheveryessencealikeofartandofcreation，andimpairstoanincalculableextentthequantitativecalculusanditsmarginalinterpretation。Anadditionof£；100tomyincomethisyearcannotbelaidoutbycalculationsoastoincreaseeachsortofexpendituretoanextentwhichwillsecuremarginalequivalenceofutility。Thatistosay，Icannottellwhatwillbethebestemploymentofmylargerincome，untilIhavetried。Thelargerincomewillproducenowhereastrictlyproportionateincreaseofexpenditureonanumberofseveralobjects。Itwouldshiftmyeconomicplanoflife，makinganewkindoflife，andinvolvingallsortsofchangesintheitems，whichfollowasconsequencesfromthechangedorganicplan。ThisnewplanIcannotaccuratelycalculateorforecast。ItwillworkitselfoutasI

proceed。Itsexecutioninvolvesnodoubtelementsofforethoughtandevencalculation，butthecentralandessentialchangewillproceedfromsomenoveltyofconception，somequalitativechangeofpurpose。Inaword，itisthecreativepowerofman，theartist，inspiration，faithandthatiseveratwork，andtheartfacultiesofadventurewillleadhimtoexperimentanewwithhisresources。Asamangainsmoreintelligence，undergoessomenewcriticalexperienceofhisouterorhisinnerlife，encounterssomenewpersonalinfluence，hisentiremodeoflivingwillchange，andinnumerablealterationsintheoutlayofhisincomewilltakeplace。Somearticlesofearlierexpenditurewilldisappear，newarticleswilltaketheirplace，andtherespectiveimportanceofmanyarticlesremainingintheexpenditurewillbeshifted。Achangeofresidencefromcountrytotown，a"conversion，"

religiousordietetic，atransferfromanoutdoormanualtoanindoorsedentaryemployment，marriage，oranyothercriticalevent，mustbringaboutsomesuchlargecomplexorganicalteration。Acomparisonoftheitemsofexpenditurebeforeandafterwillshedinterestinglightupontheresultsofthepsycho-economicchangeofwhichtheyaffordaquantitativeregister，butitcannotberegardedasanexplanationofthechangeofheartorofoutlookwhichisthedeterminantactfromwhichtheseshiftsofvaluesflow。

§；8。Thelifeofasocietypresentsthissameproblemonalargerscale。Ontheplaneofeconomicconductwhichdirectlyconcernsus，everyoneoftheinnumerableandincessantalterationsinmethodsofproductionandconsumptionranksasanorganicnovelty，and，insofarasitisnovel，necessarilybafflesquantitativeanalysisandscientificprediction。Itwould，ofcourse，beincorrect，eitherinthecaseofanindividualorofasociety，torepresentanychangeasentirelynovel。Organicgrowthitselfislargelyaquantitativeconception:thechangesareproportionateinsizetoformerchanges，andareindefinitequantitativerelationstooneanother。Thedoctrineofcontinuitythusenablesustogofarincalculatingthecharacteroffuturechanges。Sofarthescientificinterpretationofuniformityofnaturecarriesus。Butquantitativegrowth，oranyothersetofquantitativechanges，howevercalculable，alwayscarriessomequalitativeandessentiallyincalculableelementsofchange。Thesearewhatwesignifybynovelty。Itistheiroccurrenceinevolutionthatbafflesthecleanlogicofthegeologist，stillmoreofthebiologist，andfarmoreofthepsychologist。Whethertheyshowthemselvesas"faults"or"sports"or"mutations，"

theyrepresentthedisabilityofpastexperiencetofurnish"laws"fortheircalculation，andthepracticalimportancewhichattachestotheseincalculableorqualitativechangesisveryconsiderable。Thoughtheymaybecomparativelyinfrequentandmayappearonfirstinspectionalmostnegligiblebreaksintheotherwisecalculablecontinuityoftheevolutionaryprocess，theirdeterminantimportanceisreceivingevergreaterrecognition。Inhumanconduct，individualorsocial，thesemutationsseemtoplayalargerpart，chieflybyreasonoftheoperationoftheso-called"freedom"ofthehumanwill。Forwhateverphilosophicviewbeheldregardingthedeterminationoftheactsofthewill，itsoperationscattersmutationsthicklyovertherealmofhumanconduct。Henceitremainstruethatsciencecandosomuchlessinexplainingandpredictinghumanhistorythaninanyotherdepartmentofnature。Nodoubthere，aselsewhere，sciencehopestoapplyquantitativeanalysisofsuchincreasingaccuracyastoenableittodetermineandpredictalargernumberofsuchmutations。Sincetheredoubtlessexistquantitativeconditionsforeveryqualitativechange，itmayseemtheoreticallypossibleforsciencesomedaytocatchupwith"theartofcreation。"Thissupposition，however，assumesthatthenumberofpermutationsandcombinationsin"nature"islimited，andthat，therefore，insomeextensiverunhistorydoesrepeatitself。Thefinalvictoryofsciencethusseemstodependupontheadoptionofacyclicalviewofthehistoryoftheuniverse。But，forallpresentpracticalpurposesofsocialprocesses，scienceissofarremovedfromthisperfectionthattheeconomistandthesociologistarecontinuallycompelledtoallowforunpredictablechangesofsuchfrequencyandofsuchdeterminantimportancethattheirclaimtodirect"thegeneralwill"andtomouldtheconsciouspolicyofasocietymustbeverymodestlyexpressed。

Suchlawsofcausationastheyderivefrompastobservationandexperimentmustusuallybeconceivedaslawsoftendencies，seldomendowedwithanyrigorousauthorityofclosedetermination，andstillmoreseldomwithaccuracyofquantitativeprediction。

§；9。Itissometimessupposedthatthishamperingeffectoftheuniqueness，irregularity，noveltyandfreedomoftheindividualandsocialorganismscanbegotridofbyaprocessofmultiplicationinwhichparticulareccentricitieswillcancel。Toeconomists，inparticular，thereisastrongtemptationtofallbackupontheaverageman，inthebeliefthatscientificdeterminismjustifiesitselfthroughaverages。Nowtheradicaldefectofmeasurementbyaverages，asamodeofsocialvaluation，hasalreadybeendisclosed。Theascertainedfactthattheaveragemoneyincome，oreventheaveragerealincome，oftheBritishpeoplemayhaverisen10%withinthelastdecade，disablesitself，bytheveryprocessofaveraging，frominformingusastotheeffectofthisincreaseofnationalwealthuponnationalwelfare。Forthiseffectdependsuponthedistributionoftheincrease，andtheprocessofaveragingconsistsinignoringthisvitalfactofdistribution。

Thisdefectofaveragesforpurposesofinterpretation，ofcourse，involvesaconsequentdefectforpurposesofguidanceineconomicconduct。

Thecalculationthatagivencourseofnationalconduct，e。g。，theexpenditureofsomanymillionsuponimprovedtransport，willraisethenationaloraverageincomebysomuch，losesalltheworthofitssuperficialexactitudeunlessweknowhowmuchoftheincreaseisgoingtothelandlordinrisingrent，howmuchtothelabourerinrisingwages。

This，ofcourse，involvesnorepudiationofthetrueutilityofaverages，butonlyofthespuriousaccuracywhichtheirformssuggest。TheexactstatementthattheaverageincomeofanEnglishfamilyhasrisen10%inthelastdecadedoesimplyareasonableprobabilitythatanincreaseoftotalnationalwelfarehastakenplace。8Butitgivesnoinformationastotheamountofthatincrease，andisconsistentwiththefactthattheremayhavebeenadecrease，owingtoaworseningofthedistributionofthegrowingincome，orofthelabourandothercostsinvolvedinitsproduction。

§；10。Sofaruponthesuppositionthatwelfareisaquantity。Itwilloccurtostatisticiansthattheinformationtobegotfromaveragesofincomemaybejustifiedbynicerdiscrimination。If，inadditiontolearningthattheaverageincomeofallfamilieshasrisen10%，wediscoveredthedifferentpercentageswhichhadbeenaddedtorent，interest，profitsandwages，or，betterstill，theratioofincreaseforthedifferentincomelevels，weshouldsurelythen，bythisextendeduseofaverages，getnearertowardsaquantitativeestimateoftheincreaseofwelfarethathadbeenachieved!

Thismustcertainlybeadmitted。Bythenicerandmorecomplexapplicationofthesemeasures，weshouldapproachamoreaccurateaccountofwelfare，sofarasitisultimatelyexpressibleintermsofquantity。Ifwediscoveredthataproposedcourseofnationalpolicywouldnotonlyincreasetheaverageincomeby10%butwouldincreasethelowerincomesofthepopulationinahigherratio，weshouldseemtohavegotascientificwarrantforthepolicy。Buteventhisdegreeofscientificauthoritywouldbepurchasedtosomeextentbyanartificialsimplificationoftheactualproblemofsocial-economy。Tothestatesmannoproblemofactualfinanceiscapableofbeingsetinsuchdistinctivelyquantitativeterms。NotmerelycannotanearthlyChancelloroftheExchequerknowhowmuchcanbeaddedtotheincomesoftheseveralclassesbytheexpenditureofsomanymillionsupontransport，oruponanyothersingleservice，but，ifhecould，hewouldnotbemuchnearertothestandardherequires。Therearemanydifferentwaysofraisingtherevenueinquestionandaninfinitenumberofcombinationsoftheseways。Thesameholdsofexpenditure。Totakethesimplestcase；

thetenmillionsthatheraisesmaybeappliedtotransport，ortoeducation，ortodefence，allthesumoranyproportion，toeach。Eachexpenditureclaimstobebeneficial，anoutlayforpublicwelfare。Butthebenefitintheseveraloutlaysisnotequallypresentableintermsofmoneyincome，and，sofarasdefinitelyeconomicgainsaccrue，theyarenotequallyimmediateorequallyassured。Itisevidentthatnoamountofpossessionofstatisticalknowledgecanpossiblyreducetheproblementirely，orevenmainly，tooneofquantitativecalculation。Itisequallytruethatwhentheproblemissolved，itssolutionwillappearinquantitativeshape，i。e。，somuchmoneyfortransport，somuchforeducation，somuchfordefence。Itwillseemtohavebeenworkedoutbyreducingthethreeformsofdesiredbenefitstocommonterms，andthendividingthetenmillionsamongthemsoastosecureanequivalenceofgainsatthemargins。Economistswillpointouttriumphantlytheallegedfactthatthelast£；100spentoneducationproducesanationalreturnofwelfareexactlyequaltothatobtainedbythelast£；100spentongunboats，thoughhisassertionremainsinherentlyinsusceptibleofproof。Intruth，theChancellor"sminddoesnotworkinthisway。Sofarashisstatecraftisdisinterested，orevenallowingforeveryformofbias，hismindformsanidealofsocialprogress，ofahappierorbetterstateofthings，andallotstheoutlayofhistenmillionsinanendeavourtoassistinrealisingthisideal。Nowtheidealitselfisnotchieflyaproductofquantitativecalculus，butofhismoreorlessinformedimagination，andhismoreorlesswholesomesympathies。Hisviewsastothemeansofrealisingthisidealcanneverbepurelyscientific，thoughsciencemayherebeofconsiderableassistance。

If，treatingexpendituremorewidelyasanactofpublicpolicy，weconsideritasanoperationofthegeneralwillofthecommunity，atrueactofpoliticaleconomy，theproblemremainsessentiallythesame。Whenlookedatthroughscientificspectacles，itisapurelyquantitativeandmechanicallyorderedact，becausethescientificmethodbyitsverymodusoperandiignoresthequalitativefactors。Sothenationissupposedtobalancethisgainagainstanother，andtolayoutitsrevenuesoastogetthelargestaggregateofsomecommonhomogeneousstuffcalled"welfare"，insuchawaythatthelast£；100spentoneducationisequivalentinitsyieldofthis"welfare"tothelast£；100spentonthelatestsuper-dreadnaught，orthelastlotofold-agepensions。Intruth，thecommonwillnomorefunctionsinthisfashionthanthepersonalwilloftheChancellor。