Preface

ThepresentistheonlycollectededitionoftheprincipalworksofSchillerwhichisaccessibletoEnglishreaders。Detachedpoemsordramashavebeentranslatedatvarioustimes，andsometimesbymenofeminence，sincethefirstpublicationoftheoriginalworks；

andinseveralinstancestheseversionshavebeenincorporated，aftersomerevisionornecessarycorrection，intothefollowingcollection；

butontheotherhandalargeproportionofthecontentshavebeenspeciallytranslatedforthisedition，inwhichcategoryarethehistoricalworkswhichoccupythisvolumeandaportionofthenext。

Schillerwasnotlessefficientlyqualifiedbynatureforanhistorianthanforadramatist。Hewasformedtoexcelinalldepartmentsofliterature，andtheadmirablelucidityofstyleandsoundnessandimpartialityofjudgmentdisplayedinhishistoricalwritingswillnoteasilybysurpassed，andwillalwaysrecommendthemaspopularexpositionsoftheperiodsofwhichtheytreat。

Sincethefirstpublicationofthiseditionmanycorrectionsandimprovementshavebeenmade，withaviewtorenderingitasacceptableaspossibletoEnglishreaders。

HistoryoftheThirtyYears’WarinGermany。

BookI。

FromthebeginningofthereligiouswarsinGermany，tothepeaceofMunster，scarcelyanythinggreatorremarkableoccurredinthepoliticalworldofEuropeinwhichtheReformationhadnotanimportantshare。

Alltheeventsofthisperiod，iftheydidnotoriginatein，soonbecamemixedupwith，thequestionofreligion，andnostatewaseithertoogreatortoolittletofeeldirectlyorindirectlymoreorlessofitsinfluence。

Againstthereformeddoctrineanditsadherents，theHouseofAustriadirected，almostexclusively，thewholeofitsimmensepoliticalpower。

InFrance，theReformationhadenkindledacivilwarwhich，underfourstormyreigns，shookthekingdomtoitsfoundations，broughtforeignarmiesintotheheartofthecountry，andforhalfacenturyrendereditthesceneofthemostmournfuldisorders。

ItwastheReformation，too，thatrenderedtheSpanishyokeintolerabletotheFlemings，andawakenedinthemboththedesireandthecouragetothrowoffitsfetters，whileitalsoprincipallyfurnishedthemwiththemeansoftheiremancipation。AndastoEngland，alltheevilswithwhichPhiliptheSecondthreatenedElizabeth，weremainlyintendedinrevengeforherhavingtakenhisProtestantsubjectsunderherprotection，andplacingherselfattheheadofareligiouspartywhichitwashisaimandendeavourtoextirpate。InGermany，theschismsinthechurchproducedalsoalastingpoliticalschism，whichmadethatcountryformorethanacenturythetheatreofconfusion，butatthesametimethrewupafirmbarrieragainstpoliticaloppression。Itwas，too，theReformationprincipallythatfirstdrewthenorthernpowers，DenmarkandSweden，intothepoliticalsystemofEurope；andwhileontheonehandtheProtestantLeaguewasstrengthenedbytheiradhesion，itontheotherwasindispensabletotheirinterests。Stateswhichhithertoscarcelyconcernedthemselveswithoneanother’sexistence，acquiredthroughtheReformationanattractivecentreofinterest，andbegantobeunitedbynewpoliticalsympathies。Andasthroughitsinfluencenewrelationssprangupbetweencitizenandcitizen，andbetweenrulersandsubjects，soalsoentirestateswereforcedbyitintonewrelativepositions。Thus，byastrangecourseofevents，religiousdisputeswerethemeansofcementingacloserunionamongthenationsofEurope。

Fearfulindeed，anddestructive，wasthefirstmovementinwhichthisgeneralpoliticalsympathyannounceditself；adesolatingwarofthirtyyears，which，fromtheinteriorofBohemiatothemouthoftheScheldt，andfromthebanksofthePotothecoastsoftheBaltic，devastatedwholecountries，destroyedharvests，andreducedtownsandvillagestoashes；whichopenedagraveformanythousandcombatants，andforhalfacenturysmotheredtheglimmeringsparksofcivilizationinGermany，andthrewbacktheimprovingmannersofthecountryintotheirpristinebarbarityandwildness。YetoutofthisfearfulwarEuropecameforthfreeandindependent。Initshefirstlearnedtorecognizeherselfasacommunityofnations；andthisintercommunionofstates，whichoriginatedinthethirtyyears’war，mayalonebesufficienttoreconcilethephilosophertoitshorrors。Thehandofindustryhasslowlybutgraduallyeffacedthetracesofitsravages，whileitsbeneficentinfluencestillsurvives；andthisgeneralsympathyamongthestatesofEurope，whichgrewoutofthetroublesinBohemia，isourguaranteeforthecontinuanceofthatpeacewhichwastheresultofthewar。AsthesparksofdestructionfoundtheirwayfromtheinteriorofBohemia，Moravia，andAustria，tokindleGermany，France，andthehalfofEurope，soalsowillthetorchofcivilizationmakeapathforitselffromthelattertoenlightentheformercountries。

Allthiswaseffectedbyreligion。Religionalonecouldhaverenderedpossibleallthatwasaccomplished，butitwasfarfrombeingtheSOLEmotiveofthewar。Hadnotprivateadvantagesandstateinterestsbeencloselyconnectedwithit，vainandpowerlesswouldhavebeentheargumentsoftheologians；andthecryofthepeoplewouldneverhavemetwithprincessowillingtoespousetheircause，northenewdoctrineshavefoundsuchnumerous，brave，andperseveringchampions。TheReformationisundoubtedlyowinginagreatmeasuretotheinvinciblepoweroftruth，orofopinionswhichwereheldassuch。Theabusesintheoldchurch，theabsurdityofmanyofitsdogmas，theextravaganceofitsrequisitions，necessarilyrevoltedthetempersofmen，alreadyhalf-wonwiththepromiseofabetterlight，andfavourablydisposedthemtowardsthenewdoctrines。

Thecharmofindependence，therichplunderofmonasticinstitutions，madetheReformationattractiveintheeyesofprinces，andtendednotalittletostrengthentheirinwardconvictions。Nothing，however，butpoliticalconsiderationscouldhavedriventhemtoespouseit。

HadnotCharlestheFifth，intheintoxicationofsuccess，madeanattemptontheindependenceoftheGermanStates，aProtestantleaguewouldscarcelyhaverushedtoarmsindefenceoffreedomofbelief；

butfortheambitionoftheGuises，theCalvinistsinFrancewouldneverhavebeheldaCondeoraColignyattheirhead。

Withouttheexactionofthetenthandthetwentiethpenny，theSeeofRomehadneverlosttheUnitedNetherlands。Princesfoughtinself-defenceorforaggrandizement，whilereligiousenthusiasmrecruitedtheirarmies，andopenedtothemthetreasuresoftheirsubjects。Ofthemultitudewhoflockedtotheirstandards，suchaswerenotluredbythehopeofplunderimaginedtheywerefightingforthetruth，whileinfacttheyweresheddingtheirbloodforthepersonalobjectsoftheirprinces。

Andwellwasitforthepeoplethat，onthisoccasion，theirinterestscoincidedwiththoseoftheirprinces。Tothiscoincidencealoneweretheyindebtedfortheirdeliverancefrompopery。Wellwasitalsofortherulers，thatthesubjectcontendedtooforhisowncause，whilehewasfightingtheirbattles。FortunatelyatthisdatenoEuropeansovereignwassoabsoluteastobeable，inthepursuitofhispoliticaldesigns，todispensewiththegoodwillofhissubjects。

Yethowdifficultwasittogainandtosettoworkthisgoodwill！

Themostimpressiveargumentsdrawnfromreasonsofstatefallpowerlessontheearofthesubject，whoseldomunderstands，andstillmorerarelyisinterestedinthem。Insuchcircumstances，theonlycourseopentoaprudentprinceistoconnecttheinterestsofthecabinetwithsomeonethatsitsnearertothepeople’sheart，ifsuchexists，orifnot，tocreateit。

InsuchapositionstoodthegreaterpartofthoseprinceswhoembracedthecauseoftheReformation。Byastrangeconcatenationofevents，thedivisionsoftheChurchwereassociatedwithtwocircumstances，withoutwhich，inallprobability，theywouldhavehadaverydifferentconclusion。Thesewere，theincreasingpoweroftheHouseofAustria，whichthreatenedthelibertiesofEurope，anditsactivezealfortheoldreligion。Thefirstarousedtheprinces，whilethesecondarmedthepeople。

Theabolitionofaforeignjurisdictionwithintheirownterritories，thesupremacyinecclesiasticalmatters，thestoppingofthetreasurewhichhadsolongflowedtoRome，therichplunderofreligiousfoundations，weretemptingadvantagestoeverysovereign。Why，then，itmaybeasked，didtheynotoperatewithequalforceupontheprincesoftheHouseofAustria？Whatpreventedthishouse，particularlyinitsGermanbranch，fromyieldingtothepressingdemandsofsomanyofitssubjects，and，aftertheexampleofotherprinces，enrichingitselfattheexpenseofadefencelessclergy？ItisdifficulttocreditthatabeliefintheinfallibilityoftheRomishChurchhadanygreaterinfluenceonthepiousadherenceofthishouse，thantheoppositeconvictionhadontherevoltoftheProtestantprinces。Infact，severalcircumstancescombinedtomaketheAustrianprinceszealoussupportersofpopery。

SpainandItaly，fromwhichAustriaderiveditsprincipalstrength，werestilldevotedtotheSeeofRomewiththatblindobediencewhich，eversincethedaysoftheGothicdynasty，hadbeenthepeculiarcharacteristicoftheSpaniard。Theslightestapproximation，inaSpanishprince，totheobnoxioustenetsofLutherandCalvin，wouldhavealienatedforevertheaffectionsofhissubjects，andadefectionfromthePopewouldhavecosthimthekingdom。

ASpanishprincehadnoalternativebutorthodoxyorabdication。

ThesamerestraintwasimposeduponAustriabyherItaliandominions，whichshewasobligedtotreat，ifpossible，withevengreaterindulgence；

impatientastheynaturallywereofaforeignyoke，andpossessingalsoreadymeansofshakingitoff。Inregardtothelatterprovinces，moreover，therivalpretensionsofFrance，andtheneighbourhoodofthePope，weremotivessufficienttopreventtheEmperorfromdeclaringinfavourofapartywhichstrovetoannihilatethepapalsee，andalsotoinducehimtoshowthemostactivezealinbehalfoftheoldreligion。

Thesegeneralconsiderations，whichmusthavebeenequallyweightywitheverySpanishmonarch，were，intheparticularcaseofCharlesV。，stillfurtherenforcedbypeculiarandpersonalmotives。

InItalythismonarchhadaformidablerivalintheKingofFrance，underwhoseprotectionthatcountrymightthrowitselftheinstantthatCharlesshouldincurtheslightestsuspicionofheresy。

DistrustonthepartoftheRomanCatholics，andarupturewiththechurch，wouldhavebeenfatalalsotomanyofhismostcherisheddesigns。

Moreover，whenCharleswasfirstcalledupontomakehiselectionbetweenthetwoparties，thenewdoctrinehadnotyetattainedtoafullandcommandinginfluence，andtherestillsubsistedaprospectofitsreconciliationwiththeold。Inhissonandsuccessor，PhiliptheSecond，amonasticeducationcombinedwithagloomyanddespoticdispositiontogenerateanunmitigatedhostilitytoallinnovationsinreligion；afeelingwhichthethoughtthathismostformidablepoliticalopponentswerealsotheenemiesofhisfaithwasnotcalculatedtoweaken。AshisEuropeanpossessions，scatteredastheywereoversomanycountries，wereonallsidesexposedtotheseductionsofforeignopinions，theprogressoftheReformationinotherquarterscouldnotwellbeamatterofindifferencetohim。

Hisimmediateinterests，therefore，urgedhimtoattachhimselfdevotedlytotheoldchurch，inordertocloseupthesourcesofthehereticalcontagion。

Thus，circumstancesnaturallyplacedthisprinceattheheadoftheleaguewhichtheRomanCatholicsformedagainsttheReformers。

TheprincipleswhichhadactuatedthelongandactivereignsofCharlesV。andPhiliptheSecond，remainedalawfortheirsuccessors；

andthemorethebreachinthechurchwidened，thefirmerbecametheattachmentoftheSpaniardstoRomanCatholicism。

TheGermanlineoftheHouseofAustriawasapparentlymoreunfettered；

but，inreality，thoughfreefrommanyoftheserestraints，itwasyetconfinedbyothers。Thepossessionoftheimperialthrone——

adignityitwasimpossibleforaProtestanttohold，(forwithwhatconsistencycouldanapostatefromtheRomishChurchwearthecrownofaRomanemperor？)boundthesuccessorsofFerdinandI。

totheSeeofRome。Ferdinandhimselfwas，fromconscientiousmotives，heartilyattachedtoit。Besides，theGermanprincesoftheHouseofAustriawerenotpowerfulenoughtodispensewiththesupportofSpain，which，however，theywouldhaveforfeitedbytheleastshowofleaningtowardsthenewdoctrines。Theimperialdignity，also，requiredthemtopreservetheexistingpoliticalsystemofGermany，withwhichthemaintenanceoftheirownauthoritywascloselyboundup，butwhichitwastheaimoftheProtestantLeaguetodestroy。IftothesegroundsweaddtheindifferenceoftheProtestantstotheEmperor’snecessitiesandtothecommondangersoftheempire，theirencroachmentsonthetemporalitiesofthechurch，andtheiraggressiveviolencewhentheybecameconsciousoftheirownpower，wecaneasilyconceivehowsomanyconcurringmotivesmusthavedeterminedtheemperorstothesideofpopery，andhowtheirowninterestscametobeintimatelyinterwovenwiththoseoftheRomanChurch。AsitsfateseemedtodependaltogetherontheparttakenbyAustria，theprincesofthishousecametoberegardedbyallEuropeasthepillarsofpopery。Thehatred，therefore，whichtheProtestantsboreagainstthelatter，wasturnedexclusivelyuponAustria；andthecausebecamegraduallyconfoundedwithitsprotector。

ButthisirreconcileableenemyoftheReformation——theHouseofAustria——

byitsambitiousprojectsandtheoverwhelmingforcewhichitcouldbringtotheirsupport，endangered，innosmalldegree，thefreedomofEurope，andmoreespeciallyoftheGermanStates。Thiscircumstancecouldnotfailtorousethelatterfromtheirsecurity，andtorenderthemvigilantinself-defence。Theirordinaryresourceswerequiteinsufficienttoresistsoformidableapower。Extraordinaryexertionswererequiredfromtheirsubjects；andwheneventheseprovedfarfromadequate，theyhadrecoursetoforeignassistance；and，bymeansofacommonleague，theyendeavouredtoopposeapowerwhich，singly，theywereunabletowithstand。

ButthestrongpoliticalinducementswhichtheGermanprinceshadtoresistthepretensionsoftheHouseofAustria，naturallydidnotextendtotheirsubjects。Itisonlyimmediateadvantagesorimmediateevilsthatsetthepeopleinaction，andfortheseasoundpolicycannotwait。

Illthenwouldithavefaredwiththeseprinces，ifbygoodfortuneanothereffectualmotivehadnotoffereditself，whichrousedthepassionsofthepeople，andkindledinthemanenthusiasmwhichmightbedirectedagainstthepoliticaldanger，ashavingwithitacommoncauseofalarm。

ThismotivewastheiravowedhatredofthereligionwhichAustriaprotected，andtheirenthusiasticattachmenttoadoctrinewhichthatHousewasendeavouringtoextirpatebyfireandsword。Theirattachmentwasardent，theirhatredinvincible。Religiousfanaticismanticipateseventheremotestdangers。Enthusiasmnevercalculatesitssacrifices。

Whatthemostpressingdangerofthestatecouldnotgainfromthecitizens，waseffectedbyreligiouszeal。Forthestate，orfortheprince，fewwouldhavedrawnthesword；butforreligion，themerchant，theartist，thepeasant，allcheerfullyflewtoarms。Forthestate，orfortheprince，eventhesmallestadditionalimpostwouldhavebeenavoided；butforreligionthepeoplereadilystakedatoncelife，fortune，andallearthlyhopes。

Ittrebledthecontributionswhichflowedintotheexchequeroftheprinces，andthearmieswhichmarchedtothefield；and，intheardentexcitementproducedinallmindsbytheperiltowhichtheirfaithwasexposed，thesubjectfeltnotthepressureofthoseburdensandprivationsunderwhich，incoolermoments，hewouldhavesunkexhausted。TheterrorsoftheSpanishInquisition，andthemassacreofSt。Bartholomew’s，procuredforthePrinceofOrange，theAdmiralColigny，theBritishQueenElizabeth，andtheProtestantprincesofGermany，suppliesofmenandmoneyfromtheirsubjects，toadegreewhichatpresentisinconceivable。

But，withalltheirexertions，theywouldhaveeffectedlittleagainstapowerwhichwasanovermatchforanysingleadversary，howeverpowerful。

Atthisperiodofimperfectpolicy，accidentalcircumstancesalonecoulddeterminedistantstatestoaffordoneanotheramutualsupport。

Thedifferencesofgovernment，oflaws，oflanguage，ofmanners，andofcharacter，whichhithertohadkeptwholenationsandcountriesasitwereinsulated，andraisedalastingbarrierbetweenthem，renderedonestateinsensibletothedistressesofanother，savewherenationaljealousycouldindulgeamaliciousjoyatthereversesofarival。ThisbarriertheReformationdestroyed。Aninterestmoreintenseandmoreimmediatethannationalaggrandizementorpatriotism，andentirelyindependentofprivateutility，begantoanimatewholestatesandindividualcitizens；aninterestcapableofunitingnumerousanddistantnations，evenwhileitfrequentlylostitsforceamongthesubjectsofthesamegovernment。WiththeinhabitantsofGeneva，forinstance，ofEngland，ofGermany，orofHolland，theFrenchCalvinistpossessedacommonpointofunionwhichhehadnotwithhisowncountrymen。

Thus，inoneimportantparticular，heceasedtobethecitizenofasinglestate，andtoconfinehisviewsandsympathiestohisowncountryalone。Thesphereofhisviewsbecameenlarged。

Hebegantocalculatehisownfatefromthatofothernationsofthesamereligiousprofession，andtomaketheircausehisown。Nowforthefirsttimedidprincesventuretobringtheaffairsofothercountriesbeforetheirowncouncils；forthefirsttimecouldtheyhopeforawillingeartotheirownnecessities，andpromptassistancefromothers。

Foreignaffairshadnowbecomeamatterofdomesticpolicy，andthataidwasreadilygrantedtothereligiousconfederatewhichwouldhavebeendeniedtothemereneighbour，andstillmoretothedistantstranger。

TheinhabitantofthePalatinateleaveshisnativefieldstofightsidebysidewithhisreligiousassociateofFrance，againstthecommonenemyoftheirfaith。TheHuguenotdrawshisswordagainstthecountrywhichpersecuteshim，andshedshisbloodindefenceofthelibertiesofHolland。

SwissisarrayedagainstSwiss；GermanagainstGerman，todetermine，onthebanksoftheLoireandtheSeine，thesuccessionoftheFrenchcrown。

TheDanecrossestheEider，andtheSwedetheBaltic，tobreakthechainswhichareforgedforGermany。

ItisdifficulttosaywhatwouldhavebeenthefateoftheReformation，andthelibertiesoftheEmpire，hadnottheformidablepowerofAustriadeclaredagainstthem。This，however，appearscertain，thatnothingsocompletelydampedtheAustrianhopesofuniversalmonarchy，astheobstinatewarwhichtheyhadtowageagainstthenewreligiousopinions。UndernoothercircumstancescouldtheweakerprinceshaverousedtheirsubjectstosuchextraordinaryexertionsagainsttheambitionofAustria，ortheStatesthemselveshaveunitedsocloselyagainstthecommonenemy。

ThepowerofAustrianeverstoodhigherthanafterthevictorywhichCharlesV。gainedovertheGermansatMuehlberg。

WiththetreatyofSmalcaldethefreedomofGermanylay，asitseemed，prostrateforever；butitrevivedunderMauriceofSaxony，onceitsmostformidableenemy。AllthefruitsofthevictoryofMuehlbergwerelostagaininthecongressofPassau，andthedietofAugsburg；

andeveryschemeforcivilandreligiousoppressionterminatedintheconcessionsofanequitablepeace。

ThedietofAugsburgdividedGermanyintotworeligiousandtwopoliticalparties，byrecognizingtheindependentrightsandexistenceofboth。HithertotheProtestantshadbeenlookedonasrebels；

theywerehenceforthtoberegardedasbrethren——notindeedthroughaffection，butnecessity。BytheInterim*，theConfessionofAugsburgwasallowedtemporarilytotakeasisterlyplacealongsideoftheoldenreligion，thoughonlyasatoleratedneighbour。

Toeverysecularstatewasconcededtherightofestablishingthereligionitacknowledgedassupremeandexclusivewithinitsownterritories，andofforbiddingtheopenprofessionofitsrival。Subjectsweretobefreetoquitacountrywheretheirownreligionwasnottolerated。

ThedoctrinesofLutherforthefirsttimereceivedapositivesanction；

andiftheyweretrampledunderfootinBavariaandAustria，theypredominatedinSaxonyandThuringia。Butthesovereignsaloneweretodeterminewhatformofreligionshouldprevailwithintheirterritories；

thefeelingsofsubjectswhohadnorepresentativesinthedietwerelittleattendedtointhepacification。Intheecclesiasticalterritories，indeed，wheretheunreformedreligionenjoyedanundisputedsupremacy，thefreeexerciseoftheirreligionwasobtainedforallwhohadpreviouslyembracedtheProtestantdoctrines；butthisindulgencerestedonlyonthepersonalguaranteeofFerdinand，KingoftheRomans，bywhoseendeavourschieflythispeacewaseffected；aguarantee，which，beingrejectedbytheRomanCatholicmembersoftheDiet，andonlyinsertedinthetreatyundertheirprotest，couldnotofcoursehavetheforceoflaw。

*AsystemofTheologysocalled，preparedbyorderoftheEmperorCharlesV。

fortheuseofGermany，toreconcilethedifferencesbetweentheRomanCatholicsandtheLutherans，which，however，wasrejectedbybothparties——Ed。

Ifithadbeenopinionsonlythatthusdividedthemindsofmen，withwhatindifferencewouldallhaveregardedthedivision！

Butontheseopinionsdependedriches，dignities，andrights；

anditwasthiswhichsodeeplyaggravatedtheevilsofdivision。

Oftwobrothers，asitwere，whohadhithertoenjoyedapaternalinheritanceincommon，onenowremained，whiletheotherwascompelledtoleavehisfather’shouse，andhencearosethenecessityofdividingthepatrimony。

Forthisseparation，whichhecouldnothaveforeseen，thefatherhadmadenoprovision。Bythebeneficentdonationsofpiousancestorstherichesofthechurchhadbeenaccumulatingthroughathousandyears，andthesebenefactorswereasmuchtheprogenitorsofthedepartingbrotherasofhimwhoremained。Wastherightofinheritancethentobelimitedtothepaternalhouse，ortobeextendedtoblood？

ThegiftshadbeenmadetothechurchincommunionwithRome，becauseatthattimenootherexisted，——tothefirst-born，asitwere，becausehewasasyettheonlyson。Wasthenarightofprimogenituretobeadmittedinthechurch，asinnoblefamilies？Werethepretensionsofonepartytobefavouredbyaprescriptionfromtimeswhentheclaimsoftheothercouldnothavecomeintoexistence？CouldtheLutheransbejustlyexcludedfromthesepossessions，towhichthebenevolenceoftheirforefathershadcontributed，merelyonthegroundthat，atthedateoftheirfoundation，thedifferencesbetweenLutheranismandRomanismwereunknown？Bothpartieshavedisputed，andstilldispute，withequalplausibility，onthesepoints。Bothalikehavefounditdifficulttoprovetheirright。Lawcanbeappliedonlytoconceivablecases，andperhapsspiritualfoundationsarenotamongthenumberofthese，andstilllesswheretheconditionsofthefoundersgenerallyextendedtoasystemofdoctrines；forhowisitconceivablethatapermanentendowmentshouldbemadeofopinionsleftopentochange？

Whatlawcannotdecide，isusuallydeterminedbymight，andsuchwasthecasehere。Theonepartyheldfirmlyallthatcouldnolongerbewrestedfromit——theotherdefendedwhatitstillpossessed。

AllthebishopricsandabbeyswhichhadbeensecularizedBEFOREthepeace，remainedwiththeProtestants；but，byanexpressclause，theunreformedCatholicsprovidedthatnoneshouldthereafterbesecularized。

Everyimpropriatorofanecclesiasticalfoundation，whoheldimmediatelyoftheEmpire，whetherelector，bishop，orabbot，forfeitedhisbeneficeanddignitythemomentheembracedtheProtestantbelief；hewasobligedinthateventinstantlytoresignitsemoluments，andthechapterwastoproceedtoanewelection，exactlyasifhisplacehadbeenvacatedbydeath。BythissacredanchoroftheEcclesiasticalReservation，(`ReservatumEcclesiasticum’，)

whichmakesthetemporalexistenceofaspiritualprinceentirelydependentonhisfidelitytotheoldenreligion，theRomanCatholicChurchinGermanyisstillheldfast；andprecarious，indeed，wouldbeitssituationwerethisanchortogiveway。TheprincipleoftheEcclesiasticalReservationwasstronglyopposedbytheProtestants；andthoughitwasatlastadoptedintothetreatyofpeace，itsinsertionwasqualifiedwiththedeclaration，thatpartieshadcometonofinaldeterminationonthepoint。

CoulditthenbemorebindingontheProtestantsthanFerdinand’sguaranteeinfavourofProtestantsubjectsofecclesiasticalstateswasupontheRomanCatholics？Thusweretwoimportantsubjectsofdisputeleftunsettledinthetreatyofpeace，andbythemthewarwasrekindled。

Suchwasthepositionofthingswithregardtoreligioustolerationandecclesiasticalproperty:itwasthesamewithregardtorightsanddignities。

TheexistingGermansystemprovidedonlyforonechurch，becauseoneonlywasinexistencewhenthatsystemwasframed。Thechurchhadnowdivided；

theDiethadbrokenintotworeligiousparties；wasthewholesystemoftheEmpirestillexclusivelytofollowtheone？TheemperorshadhithertobeenmembersoftheRomishChurch，becausetillnowthatreligionhadnorival。ButwasithisconnexionwithRomewhichconstitutedaGermanemperor，orwasitnotratherGermanywhichwastoberepresentedinitshead？TheProtestantswerenowspreadoverthewholeEmpire，andhowcouldtheyjustlystillberepresentedbyanunbrokenlineofRomanCatholicemperors？IntheImperialChambertheGermanStatesjudgethemselves，fortheyelectthejudges；itwastheveryendofitsinstitutionthattheyshoulddoso，inorderthatequaljusticeshouldbedispensedtoall；butwouldthisbestillpossible，iftherepresentativesofbothprofessionswerenotequallyadmissibletoaseatintheChamber？ThatonereligiononlyexistedinGermanyatthetimeofitsestablishment，wasaccidental；thatnooneestateshouldhavethemeansoflegallyoppressinganother，wastheessentialpurposeoftheinstitution。Nowthisobjectwouldbeentirelyfrustratedifonereligiouspartyweretohavetheexclusivepowerofdecidingfortheother。Must，then，thedesignbesacrificed，becausethatwhichwasmerelyaccidentalhadchanged？WithgreatdifficultytheProtestants，atlast，obtainedfortherepresentativesoftheirreligionaplaceintheSupremeCouncil，butstilltherewasfarfrombeingaperfectequalityofvoices。TothisdaynoProtestantprincehasbeenraisedtotheimperialthrone。

WhatevermaybesaidoftheequalitywhichthepeaceofAugsburgwastohaveestablishedbetweenthetwoGermanchurches，theRomanCatholichadunquestionablystilltheadvantage。

AllthattheLutheranChurchgainedbyitwastoleration；

allthattheRomishChurchconceded，wasasacrificetonecessity，notanofferingtojustice。Veryfarwasitfrombeingapeacebetweentwoequalpowers，butatrucebetweenasovereignandunconqueredrebels。

FromthisprinciplealltheproceedingsoftheRomanCatholicsagainsttheProtestantsseemedtoflow，andstillcontinuetodoso。

Tojointhereformedfaithwasstillacrime，sinceitwastobevisitedwithsosevereapenaltyasthatwhichtheEcclesiasticalReservationheldsuspendedovertheapostacyofthespiritualprinces。

Eventothelast，theRomishChurchpreferredtorisktolossofeverythingbyforce，thanvoluntarilytoyieldthesmallestmattertojustice。

Thelosswasaccidentalandmightberepaired；buttheabandonmentofitspretensions，theconcessionofasinglepointtotheProtestants，wouldshakethefoundationsofthechurchitself。Eveninthetreatyofpeacethisprinciplewasnotlostsightof。WhateverinthispeacewasyieldedtotheProtestantswasalwaysundercondition。Itwasexpresslydeclared，thataffairsweretoremainonthestipulatedfootingonlytillthenextgeneralcouncil，whichwastobecalledwiththeviewofeffectinganunionbetweenthetwoconfessions。Thenonly，whenthislastattemptshouldhavefailed，wasthereligioustreatytobecomevalidandconclusive。

Howeverlittlehopetheremightbeofsuchareconciliation，howeverlittleperhapstheRomaniststhemselveswereinearnestwithit，stillitwassomethingtohavecloggedthepeacewiththesestipulations。

Thusthisreligioustreaty，whichwastoextinguishforevertheflamesofcivilwar，was，infact，butatemporarytruce，extortedbyforceandnecessity；notdictatedbyjustice，noremanatingfromjustnotionseitherofreligionortoleration。

AreligioustreatyofthiskindtheRomanCatholicswereasincapableofgranting，tobecandid，asintruththeLutheranswereunqualifiedtoreceive。FarfromevincingatolerantspirittowardstheRomanCatholics，whenitwasintheirpower，theyevenoppressedtheCalvinists；

whoindeedjustaslittledeservedtoleration，sincetheywereunwillingtopractiseit。Forsuchapeacethetimeswerenotyetripe——

themindsofmennotyetsufficientlyenlightened。Howcouldonepartyexpectfromanotherwhatitselfwasincapableofperforming？

WhateachsidesavedorgainedbythetreatyofAugsburg，itowedtotheimposingattitudeofstrengthwhichitmaintainedatthetimeofitsnegociation。Whatwaswonbyforcewastobemaintainedalsobyforce；ifthepeacewastobepermanent，thetwopartiestoitmustpreservethesamerelativepositions。

Theboundariesofthetwochurcheshadbeenmarkedoutwiththesword；

withtheswordtheymustbepreserved，orwoetothatpartywhichshouldbefirstdisarmed！AsadandfearfulprospectforthetranquillityofGermany，whenpeaceitselfboresothreateninganaspect。

Amomentarylullnowpervadedtheempire；atransitorybondofconcordappearedtouniteitsscatteredlimbsintoonebody，sothatforatimeafeelingalsoforthecommonwealreturned。Butthedivisionhadpenetrateditsinmostbeing，andtorestoreitsoriginalharmonywasimpossible。

Carefullyasthetreatyofpeaceappearedtohavedefinedtherightsofbothparties，itsinterpretationwasneverthelessthesubjectofmanydisputes。Intheheatofconflictithadproducedacessationofhostilities；itcovered，notextinguished，thefire，andunsatisfiedclaimsremainedoneitherside。TheRomanistsimaginedtheyhadlosttoomuch，theProtestantsthattheyhadgainedtoolittle；

andthetreatywhichneitherpartycouldventuretoviolate，wasinterpretedbyeachinitsownfavour。

Theseizureoftheecclesiasticalbenefices，themotivewhichhadsostronglytemptedthemajorityoftheProtestantprincestoembracethedoctrinesofLuther，wasnotlesspowerfulafterthanbeforethepeace；

ofthosewhosefoundershadnotheldtheirfiefsimmediatelyoftheempire，suchaswerenotalreadyintheirpossessionwoulditwasevidentsoonbeso。

ThewholeofLowerGermanywasalreadysecularized；andifitwereotherwiseinUpperGermany，itwasowingtothevehementresistanceoftheCatholics，whohadtherethepreponderance。Eachparty，whereitwasthemostpowerful，oppressedtheadherentsoftheother；theecclesiasticalprincesinparticular，asthemostdefencelessmembersoftheempire，wereincessantlytormentedbytheambitionoftheirProtestantneighbours。

Thosewhoweretooweaktorepelforcebyforce，tookrefugeunderthewingsofjustice；andthecomplaintsofspoliationwereheapedupagainsttheProtestantsintheImperialChamber，whichwasreadyenoughtopursuetheaccusedwithjudgments，butfoundtoolittlesupporttocarrythemintoeffect。

ThepeacewhichstipulatedforcompletereligioustolerationforthedignitariesoftheEmpire，hadprovidedalsoforthesubject，byenablinghim，withoutinterruption，toleavethecountryinwhichtheexerciseofhisreligionwasprohibited。Butfromthewrongswhichtheviolenceofasovereignmightinflictonanobnoxioussubject；

fromthenamelessoppressionsbywhichhemightharassandannoytheemigrant；

fromtheartfulsnaresinwhichsubtiltycombinedwithpowermightenmeshhim——fromthese，thedeadletterofthetreatycouldaffordhimnoprotection。

TheCatholicsubjectofProtestantprincescomplainedloudlyofviolationsofthereligiouspeace——theLutheransstillmoreloudlyoftheoppressiontheyexperiencedundertheirRomanistsuzerains。Therancourandanimositiesoftheologiansinfusedapoisonintoeveryoccurrence，howeverinconsiderable，andinflamedthemindsofthepeople。Happywouldithavebeenhadthistheologicalhatredexhausteditszealuponthecommonenemy，insteadofventingitsvirusontheadherentsofakindredfaith！

UnanimityamongsttheProtestantsmight，bypreservingthebalancebetweenthecontendingparties，haveprolongedthepeace；

butasiftocompletetheconfusion，allconcordwasquicklybroken。

ThedoctrineswhichhadbeenpropagatedbyZuingliinZurich，andbyCalvininGeneva，soonspreadtoGermany，anddividedtheProtestantsamongthemselves，withlittleinunisonsavetheircommonhatredtopopery。

TheProtestantsofthisdateborebutslightresemblancetothosewho，fiftyyearsbefore，drewuptheConfessionofAugsburg；

andthecauseofthechangeistobesoughtinthatConfessionitself。

IthadprescribedapositiveboundarytotheProtestantfaith，beforethenewlyawakenedspiritofinquiryhadsatisfieditselfastothelimitsitoughttoset；andtheProtestantsseemedunwittinglytohavethrownawaymuchoftheadvantageacquiredbytheirrejectionofpopery。

CommoncomplaintsoftheRomishhierarchy，andofecclesiasticalabuses，andacommondisapprobationofitsdogmas，formedasufficientcentreofunionfortheProtestants；butnotcontentwiththis，theysoughtarallyingpointinthepromulgationofanewandpositivecreed，inwhichtheysoughttoembodythedistinctions，theprivileges，andtheessenceofthechurch，andtothistheyreferredtheconventionenteredintowiththeiropponents。

Itwasasprofessorsofthiscreedthattheyhadaccededtothetreaty；

andinthebenefitsofthispeacetheadvocatesoftheconfessionwerealoneentitledtoparticipate。Inanycase，therefore，thesituationofitsadherentswasembarrassing。IfablindobediencewereyieldedtothedictaoftheConfession，alastingboundwouldbesettothespiritofinquiry；if，ontheotherhand，theydissentedfromtheformulaeagreedupon，thepointofunionwouldbelost。

Unfortunatelybothincidentsoccurred，andtheevilresultsofbothwerequicklyfelt。Onepartyrigorouslyadheredtotheoriginalsymboloffaith，andtheotherabandonedit，onlytoadoptanotherwithequalexclusiveness。

Nothingcouldhavefurnishedthecommonenemyamoreplausibledefenceofhiscausethanthisdissension；nospectaclecouldhavebeenmoregratifyingtohimthantherancourwithwhichtheProtestantsalternatelypersecutedeachother。WhocouldcondemntheRomanCatholics，iftheylaughedattheaudacitywithwhichtheReformershadpresumedtoannouncetheonlytruebelief？——iffromProtestantstheyborrowedtheweaponsagainstProtestants？——if，inthemidstofthisclashingofopinions，theyheldfasttotheauthorityoftheirownchurch，forwhich，inpart，therespokeanhonourableantiquity，andayetmorehonourablepluralityofvoices。ButthisdivisionplacedtheProtestantsinstillmoreseriousembarrassments。

AsthecovenantsofthetreatyappliedonlytothepartisansoftheConfession，theiropponents，withsomereason，calleduponthemtoexplainwhoweretoberecognizedastheadherentsofthatcreed。

TheLutheranscouldnot，withoutoffendingconscience，includetheCalvinistsintheircommunion，exceptattheriskofconvertingausefulfriendintoadangerousenemy，couldtheyexcludethem。

ThisunfortunatedifferenceopenedawayforthemachinationsoftheJesuitstosowdistrustbetweenbothparties，andtodestroytheunityoftheirmeasures。Fetteredbythedoublefearoftheirdirectadversaries，andoftheiropponentsamongthemselves，theProtestantslostforevertheopportunityofplacingtheirchurchonaperfectequalitywiththeCatholic。Allthesedifficultieswouldhavebeenavoided，andthedefectionoftheCalvinistswouldnothaveprejudicedthecommoncause，ifthepointofunionhadbeenplacedsimplyintheabandonmentofRomanism，insteadofintheConfessionofAugsburg。

Buthoweverdividedonotherpoints，theyconcurredinthis——

thatthesecuritywhichhadresultedfromequalityofpowercouldonlybemaintainedbythepreservationofthatbalance。

Inthemeanwhile，thecontinualreformsofoneparty，andtheopposingmeasuresoftheother，keptbothuponthewatch，whiletheinterpretationofthereligioustreatywasanever-endingsubjectofdispute。Eachpartymaintainedthateverysteptakenbyitsopponentwasaninfractionofthepeace，whileofeverymovementofitsownitwasassertedthatitwasessentialtoitsmaintenance。

YetallthemeasuresoftheCatholicsdidnot，astheiropponentsalleged，proceedfromaspiritofencroachment——manyofthemwerethenecessaryprecautionsofself-defence。TheProtestantshadshownunequivocallyenoughwhattheRomanistsmightexpectiftheywereunfortunateenoughtobecometheweakerparty。Thegreedinessoftheformerforthepropertyofthechurch，gavenoreasontoexpectindulgence；——

theirbitterhatredleftnohopeofmagnanimityorforbearance。

ButtheProtestants，likewise，wereexcusableiftheytooplacedlittleconfidenceinthesincerityoftheRomanCatholics。

BythetreacherousandinhumantreatmentwhichtheirbrethreninSpain，France，andtheNetherlands，hadsuffered；bythedisgracefulsubterfugeoftheRomishprinces，whoheldthatthePopehadpowertorelievethemfromtheobligationofthemostsolemnoaths；andaboveall，bythedetestablemaxim，thatfaithwasnottobekeptwithheretics，theRomanChurch，intheeyesofallhonestmen，hadlostitshonour。

Noengagement，nooath，howeversacred，fromaRomanCatholic，couldsatisfyaProtestant。Whatsecuritythencouldthereligiouspeaceafford，when，throughoutGermany，theJesuitsrepresenteditasameasureofmeretemporaryconvenience，andinRomeitselfitwassolemnlyrepudiated。

TheGeneralCouncil，towhichreferencehadbeenmadeinthetreaty，hadalreadybeenheldinthecityofTrent；but，asmighthavebeenforeseen，withoutaccommodatingthereligiousdifferences，ortakingasinglesteptoeffectsuchaccommodation，andevenwithoutbeingattendedbytheProtestants。

Thelatter，indeed，werenowsolemnlyexcommunicatedbyitinthenameofthechurch，whoserepresentativetheCouncilgaveitselfouttobe。

Could，then，aseculartreaty，extortedmoreoverbyforceofarms，affordthemadequateprotectionagainstthebanofthechurch；atreaty，too，basedonaconditionwhichthedecisionoftheCouncilseemedentirelytoabolish？Therewasthenashowofrightforviolatingthepeace，ifonlytheRomanistspossessedthepower；andhenceforwardtheProtestantswereprotectedbynothingbuttherespectfortheirformidablearray。

Othercircumstancescombinedtoaugmentthisdistrust。Spain，onwhosesupporttheRomanistsinGermanychieflyrelied，wasengagedinabloodyconflictwiththeFlemings。Byit，thefloweroftheSpanishtroopsweredrawntotheconfinesofGermany。Withwhateasemighttheybeintroducedwithintheempire，ifadecisivestrokeshouldrendertheirpresencenecessary？GermanywasatthattimeamagazineofwarfornearlyallthepowersofEurope。Thereligiouswarhadcrowdeditwithsoldiers，whomthepeaceleftdestitute；itsmanyindependentprincesfounditeasytoassemblearmies，andafterwards，forthesakeofgain，ortheinterestsofparty，hirethemouttootherpowers。WithGermantroops，PhiliptheSecondwagedwaragainsttheNetherlands，andwithGermantroopstheydefendedthemselves。EverysuchlevyinGermanywasasubjectofalarmtotheonepartyortheother，sinceitmightbeintendedfortheiroppression。Thearrivalofanambassador，anextraordinarylegateofthePope，aconferenceofprinces，everyunusualincident，must，itwasthought，bepregnantwithdestructiontosomeparty。Thus，fornearlyhalfacentury，stoodGermany，herhanduponthesword；

everyrustleofaleafalarmedher。

FerdinandtheFirst，KingofHungary，andhisexcellentson，MaximiliantheSecond，heldatthismemorableepochthereinsofgovernment。

Withaheartfullofsincerity，withatrulyheroicpatience，hadFerdinandbroughtaboutthereligiouspeaceofAugsburg，andafterwards，intheCouncilofTrent，labouredassiduously，thoughvainly，attheungratefultaskofreconcilingthetworeligions。

Abandonedbyhisnephew，PhilipofSpain，andhardpressedbothinHungaryandTransylvaniabythevictoriousarmiesoftheTurks，itwasnotlikelythatthisemperorwouldentertaintheideaofviolatingthereligiouspeace，andtherebydestroyinghisownpainfulwork。

TheheavyexpensesoftheperpetuallyrecurringwarwithTurkeycouldnotbedefrayedbythemeagrecontributionsofhisexhaustedhereditarydominions。Hestood，therefore，inneedoftheassistanceofthewholeempire；andthereligiouspeacealonepreservedinonebodytheotherwisedividedempire。FinancialnecessitiesmadetheProtestantasneedfultohimastheRomanist，andimposeduponhimtheobligationoftreatingbothpartieswithequaljustice，which，amidstsomanycontradictoryclaims，wastrulyacolossaltask。Veryfar，however，wastheresultfromansweringhisexpectations。HisindulgenceoftheProtestantsservedonlytobringuponhissuccessorsawar，whichdeathsavedhimselfthemortificationofwitnessing。

ScarcelymorefortunatewashissonMaximilian，withwhomperhapsthepressureofcircumstanceswastheonlyobstacle，andalongerlifeperhapstheonlywant，tohisestablishingthenewreligionupontheimperialthrone。NecessityhadtaughtthefatherforbearancetowardstheProtestants——necessityandjusticedictatedthesamecoursetotheson。Thegrandsonhadreasontorepentthatheneitherlistenedtojustice，noryieldedtonecessity。

Maximilianleftsixsons，ofwhomtheeldest，theArchdukeRodolph，inheritedhisdominions，andascendedtheimperialthrone。

Theotherbrotherswereputoffwithpettyappanages。Afewmesnefiefswereheldbyacollateralbranch，whichhadtheiruncle，CharlesofStyria，atitshead；andeventhesewereafterwards，underhisson，FerdinandtheSecond，incorporatedwiththerestofthefamilydominions。

Withthisexception，thewholeoftheimposingpowerofAustriawasnowwieldedbyasingle，butunfortunatelyweakhand。

RodolphtheSecondwasnotdevoidofthosevirtueswhichmighthavegainedhimtheesteemofmankind，hadthelotofaprivatestationfallentohim。

Hischaracterwasmild，helovedpeaceandthesciences，particularlyastronomy，naturalhistory，chemistry，andthestudyofantiquities。Totheseheappliedwithapassionatezeal，which，attheverytimewhenthecriticalpostureofaffairsdemandedallhisattention，andhisexhaustedfinancesthemostrigideconomy，divertedhisattentionfromstateaffairs，andinvolvedhiminperniciousexpenses。Histasteforastronomysoonlostitselfinthoseastrologicalreveriestowhichtimidandmelancholytemperamentslikehisarebuttoodisposed。This，togetherwithayouthpassedinSpain，openedhisearstotheevilcounselsoftheJesuits，andtheinfluenceoftheSpanishcourt，bywhichatlasthewaswhollygoverned。

Ruledbytastessolittleinaccordancewiththedignityofhisstation，andalarmedbyridiculousprophecies，hewithdrew，aftertheSpanishcustom，fromtheeyesofhissubjects，toburyhimselfamidsthisgemsandantiques，ortomakeexperimentsinhislaboratory，whilethemostfataldiscordsloosenedallthebandsoftheempire，andtheflamesofrebellionbegantoburstoutattheveryfootstepsofhisthrone。

Allaccesstohispersonwasdenied，themosturgentmatterswereneglected。

TheprospectoftherichinheritanceofSpainwasclosedagainsthim，whilehewastryingtomakeuphismindtoofferhishandtotheInfantaIsabella。AfearfulanarchythreatenedtheEmpire，forthoughwithoutanheirofhisownbody，hecouldnotbepersuadedtoallowtheelectionofaKingoftheRomans。TheAustrianStatesrenouncedtheirallegiance，HungaryandTransylvaniathrewoffhissupremacy，andBohemiawasnotslowinfollowingtheirexample。ThedescendantoftheoncesoformidableCharlestheFifthwasinperpetualdanger，eitheroflosingonepartofhispossessionstotheTurks，oranothertotheProtestants，andofsinking，beyondredemption，undertheformidablecoalitionwhichagreatmonarchofEuropehadformedagainsthim。TheeventswhichnowtookplaceintheinteriorofGermanyweresuchasusuallyhappenedwheneitherthethronewaswithoutanemperor，ortheEmperorwithoutasenseofhisimperialdignity。Outragedorabandonedbytheirhead，theStatesoftheEmpirewerelefttohelpthemselves；

andalliancesamongthemselvesmustsupplythedefectiveauthorityoftheEmperor。Germanywasdividedintotwoleagues，whichstoodinarmsarrayedagainsteachother:betweenboth，Rodolph，thedespisedopponentoftheone，andtheimpotentprotectoroftheother，remainedirresoluteanduseless，equallyunabletodestroytheformerortocommandthelatter。WhathadtheEmpiretolookforfromaprinceincapableevenofdefendinghishereditarydominionsagainstitsdomesticenemies？TopreventtheutterruinoftheHouseofAustria，hisownfamilycombinedagainsthim；andapowerfulpartythrewitselfintothearmsofhisbrother。Drivenfromhishereditarydominions，nothingwasnowlefthimtolosebuttheimperialdignity；

andhewasonlysparedthislastdisgracebyatimelydeath。

Atthiscriticalmoment，whenonlyasupplepolicy，unitedwithavigorousarm，couldhavemaintainedthetranquillityoftheEmpire，itsevilgeniusgaveitaRodolphforEmperor。AtamorepeacefulperiodtheGermanicUnionwouldhavemanageditsowninterests，andRodolph，likesomanyothersofhisrank，mighthavehiddenhisdeficienciesinamysteriousobscurity。Buttheurgentdemandforthequalitiesinwhichhewasmostdeficientrevealedhisincapacity。

ThepositionofGermanycalledforanemperorwho，byhisknownenergies，couldgiveweighttohisresolves；andthehereditarydominionsofRodolph，considerableastheywere，wereatpresentinasituationtooccasionthegreatestembarrassmenttothegovernors。

TheAustrianprinces，itistruewereRomanCatholics，andinadditiontothat，thesupportersofPopery，buttheircountrieswerefarfrombeingso。

Thereformedopinionshadpenetratedeventhese，andfavouredbyFerdinand’snecessitiesandMaximilian’smildness，hadmetwitharapidsuccess。TheAustrianprovincesexhibitedinminiaturewhatGermanydidonalargerscale。Thegreatnoblesandtheritterclassorknightswerechieflyevangelical，andinthecitiestheProtestantshadadecidedpreponderance。Iftheysucceededinbringingafewoftheirpartyintothecountry，theycontrivedimperceptiblytofillallplacesoftrustandthemagistracywiththeirownadherents，andtoexcludetheCatholics。

Againstthenumerousorderofthenoblesandknights，andthedeputiesfromthetowns，thevoiceofafewprelateswaspowerless；

andtheunseemlyridiculeandoffensivecontemptoftheformersoondrovethementirelyfromtheprovincialdiets。ThusthewholeoftheAustrianDiethadimperceptiblybecomeProtestant，andtheReformationwasmakingrapidstridestowardsitspublicrecognition。TheprincewasdependentontheEstates，whohaditintheirpowertograntorrefusesupplies。Accordingly，theyavailedthemselvesofthefinancialnecessitiesofFerdinandandhissontoextortonereligiousconcessionafteranother。Tothenoblesandknights，Maximilianatlastconcededthefreeexerciseoftheirreligion，butonlywithintheirownterritoriesandcastles。TheintemperateenthusiasmoftheProtestantpreachersoversteppedtheboundarieswhichprudencehadprescribed。Indefianceoftheexpressprohibition，severalofthemventuredtopreachpublicly，notonlyinthetowns，butinViennaitself，andthepeopleflockedincrowdstothisnewdoctrine，thebestseasoningofwhichwaspersonalityandabuse。Thuscontinuedfoodwassuppliedtofanaticism，andthehatredoftwochurches，thatweresuchnearneighbours，wasfartherenvenomedbythestingofanimpurezeal。

AmongthehereditarydominionsoftheHouseofAustria，HungaryandTransylvaniawerethemostunstable，andthemostdifficulttoretain。TheimpossibilityofholdingthesetwocountriesagainsttheneighbouringandoverwhelmingpoweroftheTurks，hadalreadydrivenFerdinandtotheingloriousexpedientofrecognizing，byanannualtribute，thePorte’ssupremacyoverTransylvania；

ashamefulconfessionofweakness，andastillmoredangeroustemptationtotheturbulentnobility，whentheyfanciedtheyhadanyreasontocomplainoftheirmaster。NotwithoutconditionshadtheHungarianssubmittedtotheHouseofAustria。Theyassertedtheelectivefreedomoftheircrown，andboldlycontendedforallthoseprerogativesoftheirorderwhichareinseparablefromthisfreedomofelection。ThenearneighbourhoodofTurkey，thefacilityofchangingmasterswithimpunity，encouragedthemagnatesstillmoreintheirpresumption；discontentedwiththeAustriangovernmenttheythrewthemselvesintothearmsoftheTurks；

dissatisfiedwiththese，theyreturnedagaintotheirGermansovereigns。

Thefrequencyandrapidityofthesetransitionsfromonegovernmenttoanother，hadcommunicateditsinfluencesalsototheirmodeofthinking；

andastheircountrywaveredbetweentheTurkishandAustrianrule，sotheirmindsvacillatedbetweenrevoltandsubmission。

Themoreunfortunateeachnationfeltitselfinbeingdegradedintoaprovinceofaforeignkingdom，thestrongerdesiredidtheyfeeltoobeyamonarchchosenfromamongstthemselves，andthusitwasalwayseasyforanenterprisingnobletoobtaintheirsupport。ThenearestTurkishpashawasalwaysreadytobestowtheHungariansceptreandcrownonarebelagainstAustria；justasreadywasAustriatoconfirmtoanyadventurerthepossessionofprovinceswhichhehadwrestedfromthePorte，satisfiedwithpreservingtherebytheshadowofauthority，andwitherectingatthesametimeabarrieragainsttheTurks。

Inthiswayseveralofthesemagnates，Batbori，Boschkai，Ragoczi，andBethlensucceededinestablishingthemselves，oneafteranother，astributarysovereignsinTransylvaniaandHungary；

andtheymaintainedtheirgroundbynodeeperpolicythanthatofoccasionallyjoiningtheenemy，inordertorenderthemselvesmoreformidabletotheirownprince。

Ferdinand，Maximilian，andRodolph，whowereallsovereignsofHungaryandTransylvania，exhaustedtheirotherterritoriesinendeavouringtodefendthesefromthehostileinroadsoftheTurks，andtoputdownintestinerebellion。Inthisquarterdestructivewarsweresucceededbutbybrieftruces，whichwerescarcelylesshurtful:farandwidethelandlaywaste，whiletheinjuredserfhadtocomplainequallyofhisenemyandhisprotector。

IntothesecountriesalsotheReformationhadpenetrated；

andprotectedbythefreedomoftheStates，andunderthecoveroftheinternaldisorders，hadmadeanoticeableprogress。

Heretooitwasincautiouslyattacked，andpartyspiritthusbecameyetmoredangerousfromreligiousenthusiasm。Headedbyaboldrebel，Boschkai，thenoblesofHungaryandTransylvaniaraisedthestandardofrebellion。TheHungarianinsurgentswereuponthepointofmakingcommoncausewiththediscontentedProtestantsinAustria，Moravia，andBohemia，andunitingallthosecountriesinonefearfulrevolt。

Thedownfallofpoperyintheselandswouldthenhavebeeninevitable。

LonghadtheAustrianarchdukes，thebrothersoftheEmperor，beheldwithsilentindignationtheimpendingruinoftheirhouse；

thislasteventhastenedtheirdecision。TheArchdukeMatthias，Maximilian’ssecondson，ViceroyinHungary，andRodolph’spresumptiveheir，nowcameforwardasthestayofthefallinghouseofHapsburg。Inhisyouth，misledbyafalseambition，thisprince，disregardingtheinterestsofhisfamily，hadlistenedtotheoverturesoftheFlemishinsurgents，whoinvitedhimintotheNetherlandstoconductthedefenceoftheirlibertiesagainsttheoppressionofhisownrelative，PhiliptheSecond。

Mistakingthevoiceofaninsulatedfactionforthatoftheentirenation，Matthiasobeyedthecall。ButtheeventansweredtheexpectationsofthemenofBrabantaslittleashisown，andfromthisimprudententerpriseheretiredwithlittlecredit。

Farmorehonourablewashissecondappearanceinthepoliticalworld。

PerceivingthathisrepeatedremonstranceswiththeEmperorwereunavailing，heassembledthearchdukes，hisbrothersandcousins，atPresburg，andconsultedwiththemonthegrowingperilsoftheirhouse，whentheyunanimouslyassignedtohim，astheoldest，thedutyofdefendingthatpatrimonywhichafeeblebrotherwasendangering。

Inhishandstheyplacedalltheirpowersandrights，andvestedhimwithsovereignauthority，toactathisdiscretionforthecommongood。MatthiasimmediatelyopenedacommunicationwiththePorteandtheHungarianrebels，andthroughhisskilfulmanagementsucceededinsaving，byapeacewiththeTurks，theremainderofHungary，andbyatreatywiththerebels，preservedtheclaimsofAustriatothelostprovinces。ButRodolph，asjealousashehadhithertobeencarelessofhissovereignauthority，refusedtoratifythistreaty，whichheregardedasacriminalencroachmentonhissovereignrights。

HeaccusedtheArchdukeofkeepingupasecretunderstandingwiththeenemy，andofcherishingtreasonabledesignsonthecrownofHungary。

TheactivityofMatthiaswas，intruth，anythingbutdisinterested；

theconductoftheEmperoronlyacceleratedtheexecutionofhisambitiousviews。Secure，frommotivesofgratitude，ofthedevotionoftheHungarians，forwhomhehadsolatelyobtainedtheblessingsofpeace；assuredbyhisagentsofthefavourabledispositionofthenobles，andcertainofthesupportofalargeparty，eveninAustria，henowventuredtoassumeabolderattitude，and，swordinhand，todiscusshisgrievanceswiththeEmperor。TheProtestantsinAustriaandMoravia，longripeforrevolt，andnowwonovertotheArchdukebyhispromisesoftoleration，loudlyandopenlyespousedhiscause，andtheirlong-menacedalliancewiththeHungarianrebelswasactuallyeffected。AlmostatonceaformidableconspiracywasplannedandmaturedagainsttheEmperor。Toolatedidheresolvetoamendhispasterrors；invaindidheattempttobreakupthisfatalalliance。Alreadythewholeempirewasinarms；

Hungary，Austria，andMoraviahaddonehomagetoMatthias，whowasalreadyonhismarchtoBohemiatoseizetheEmperorinhispalace，andtocutatoncethesinewsofhispower。

BohemiawasnotamorepeaceablepossessionforAustriathanHungary；

withthisdifferenceonly，that，inthelatter，politicalconsiderations，intheformer，religiousdissensions，fomenteddisorders。

InBohemia，acenturybeforethedaysofLuther，thefirstsparkofthereligiouswarhadbeenkindled；acenturyafterLuther，thefirstflamesofthethirtyyears’warburstoutinBohemia。

ThesectwhichoweditsrisetoJohnHuss，stillexistedinthatcountry；——

itagreedwiththeRomishChurchinceremoniesanddoctrines，withthesingleexceptionoftheadministrationoftheCommunion，inwhichtheHussitescommunicatedinbothkinds。ThisprivilegehadbeenconcededtothefollowersofHussbytheCouncilofBasle，inanexpresstreaty，(theBohemianCompact)；andthoughitwasafterwardsdisavowedbythepopes，theyneverthelesscontinuedtoprofitbyitunderthesanctionofthegovernment。Astheuseofthecupformedtheonlyimportantdistinctionoftheirbody，theywereusuallydesignatedbythenameofUtraquists；

andtheyreadilyadoptedanappellationwhichremindedthemoftheirdearlyvaluedprivilege。ButunderthistitlelurkedalsothefarstrictersectsoftheBohemianandMoravianBrethren，whodifferedfromthepredominantchurchinmoreimportantparticulars，andbore，infact，agreatresemblancetotheGermanProtestants。

Amongthemboth，theGermanandSwissopinionsonreligionmaderapidprogress；whilethenameofUtraquists，underwhichtheymanagedtodisguisethechangeoftheirprinciples，shieldedthemfrompersecution。

Intruth，theyhadnothingincommonwiththeUtraquistsbutthename；

essentially，theywerealtogetherProtestant。Confidentinthestrengthoftheirparty，andtheEmperor’stolerationunderMaximilian，theyhadopenlyavowedtheirtenets。AftertheexampleoftheGermans，theydrewupaConfessionoftheirown，inwhichLutheransaswellasCalvinistsrecognizedtheirowndoctrines，andtheysoughttotransfertothenewConfessiontheprivilegesoftheoriginalUtraquists。

InthistheywereopposedbytheirRomanCatholiccountrymen，andforcedtorestcontentwiththeEmperor’sverbalassuranceofprotection。

AslongasMaximilianlived，theyenjoyedcompletetoleration，evenunderthenewformtheyhadtaken。Underhissuccessorthescenechanged。

Animperialedictappeared，whichdeprivedtheBohemianBrethrenoftheirreligiousfreedom。NowthesedifferedinnothingfromtheotherUtraquists。Thesentence，therefore，oftheircondemnation，obviouslyincludedallthepartisansoftheBohemianConfession。

Accordingly，theyallcombinedtoopposetheimperialmandateintheDiet，butwithoutbeingabletoprocureitsrevocation。

TheEmperorandtheRomanCatholicEstatestooktheirgroundontheCompactandtheBohemianConstitution；inwhichnothingappearedinfavourofareligionwhichhadnotthenobtainedthevoiceofthecountry。

Sincethattime，howcompletelyhadaffairschanged！

Whatthenformedbutaninconsiderableopinion，hadnowbecomethepredominantreligionofthecountry。Andwhatwasitthen，butasubterfugetolimitanewlyspreadingreligionbythetermsofobsoletetreaties？TheBohemianProtestantsappealedtotheverbalguaranteeofMaximilian，andthereligiousfreedomoftheGermans，withwhomtheyarguedtheyoughttobeonafootingofequality。

Itwasinvain——theirappealwasdismissed。

SuchwasthepostureofaffairsinBohemia，whenMatthias，alreadymasterofHungary，Austria，andMoravia，appearedinKolin，toraisetheBohemianEstatesalsoagainsttheEmperor。

Theembarrassmentofthelatterwasnowatitsheight。Abandonedbyallhisothersubjects，heplacedhislasthopesontheBohemians，who，itmightbeforeseen，wouldtakeadvantageofhisnecessitiestoenforcetheirowndemands。Afteranintervalofmanyyears，heoncemoreappearedpubliclyintheDietatPrague；

andtoconvincethepeoplethathewasreallystillinexistence，ordersweregiventhatallthewindowsshouldbeopenedinthestreetsthroughwhichhewastopass——proofenoughhowfarthingshadgonewithhim。

Theeventjustifiedhisfears。TheEstates，consciousoftheirownpower，refusedtotakeasinglestepuntiltheirprivilegeswereconfirmed，andreligioustolerationfullyassuredtothem。Itwasinvaintohaverecoursenowtotheoldsystemofevasion。TheEmperor’sfatewasintheirhands，andhemustyieldtonecessity。Atpresent，however，heonlygrantedtheirotherdemands——religiousmattershereservedforconsiderationatthenextDiet。

TheBohemiansnowtookuparmsindefenceoftheEmperor，andabloodywarbetweenthetwobrotherswasonthepointofbreakingout。ButRodolph，whofearednothingsomuchasremaininginthisslavishdependenceontheEstates，waitednotforawarlikeissue，buthastenedtoeffectareconciliationwithhisbrotherbymorepeaceablemeans。

ByaformalactofabdicationheresignedtoMatthias，whatindeedhehadnochanceofwrestingfromhim，AustriaandthekingdomofHungary，andacknowledgedhimashissuccessortothecrownofBohemia。

DearlyenoughhadtheEmperorextricatedhimselffromonedifficulty，onlytogetimmediatelyinvolvedinanother。ThesettlementofthereligiousaffairsofBohemiahadbeenreferredtothenextDiet，whichwasheldin1609。ThereformedBohemiansdemandedthefreeexerciseoftheirfaith，asundertheformeremperors；aConsistoryoftheirown；

thecessionoftheUniversityofPrague；andtherightofelecting`Defenders’，or`Protectors’of`Liberty’，fromtheirownbody。

Theanswerwasthesameasbefore；forthetimidEmperorwasnowentirelyfetteredbytheunreformedparty。Howeveroften，andinhoweverthreateninglanguagetheEstatesrenewedtheirremonstrances，theEmperorpersistedinhisfirstdeclarationofgrantingnothingbeyondtheoldcompact。TheDietbrokeupwithoutcomingtoadecision；

andtheEstates，exasperatedagainsttheEmperor，arrangedageneralmeetingatPrague，upontheirownauthority，torightthemselves。

TheyappearedatPragueingreatforce。Indefianceoftheimperialprohibition，theycarriedontheirdeliberationsalmostundertheveryeyesoftheEmperor。Theyieldingcompliancewhichhebegantoshow，onlyprovedhowmuchtheywerefeared，andincreasedtheiraudacity。Yetonthemainpointheremainedinflexible。

Theyfulfilledtheirthreats，andatlastresolvedtoestablish，bytheirownpower，thefreeanduniversalexerciseoftheirreligion，andtoabandontheEmperortohisnecessitiesuntilheshouldconfirmthisresolution。Theyevenwentfarther，andelectedforthemselvestheDEFENDERSwhichtheEmperorhadrefusedthem。TenwerenominatedbyeachofthethreeEstates；theyalsodeterminedtoraise，assoonaspossible，anarmedforce，attheheadofwhichCountThurn，thechieforganizeroftherevolt，shouldbeplacedasgeneraldefenderofthelibertiesofBohemia。TheirdeterminationbroughttheEmperortosubmission，towhichhewasnowcounselledevenbytheSpaniards。

ApprehensivelesttheexasperatedEstatesshouldthrowthemselvesintothearmsoftheKingofHungary，hesignedthememorableLetterofMajestyforBohemia，bywhich，underthesuccessorsoftheEmperor，thatpeoplejustifiedtheirrebellion。

TheBohemianConfession，whichtheStateshadlaidbeforetheEmperorMaximilian，was，bytheLetterofMajesty，placedonafootingofequalitywiththeoldenprofession。TheUtraquists，forbythistitletheBohemianProtestantscontinuedtodesignatethemselves，wereputinpossessionoftheUniversityofPrague，andallowedaConsistoryoftheirown，entirelyindependentofthearchiepiscopalseeofthatcity。

Allthechurchesinthecities，villages，andmarkettowns，whichtheyheldatthedateoftheletter，weresecuredtothem；

andifinadditiontheywishedtoerectothers，itwaspermittedtothenobles，andknights，andthefreecitiestodoso。ThislastclauseintheLetterofMajestygaverisetotheunfortunatedisputeswhichsubsequentlyrekindledtheflamesofwarinEurope。

TheLetterofMajestyerectedtheProtestantpartofBohemiaintoakindofrepublic。TheEstateshadlearnedtofeelthepowerwhichtheygainedbyperseverance，unity，andharmonyintheirmeasures。

TheEmperornowretainedlittlemorethantheshadowofhissovereignauthority；whilebythenewdignityoftheso-calleddefendersofliberty，adangerousstimuluswasgiventothespiritofrevolt。

TheexampleandsuccessofBohemiaaffordedatemptingseductiontotheotherhereditarydominionsofAustria，andallattemptedbysimilarmeanstoextortsimilarprivileges。Thespiritoflibertyspreadfromoneprovincetoanother；andasitwaschieflythedisunionamongtheAustrianprincesthathadenabledtheProtestantssomateriallytoimprovetheiradvantages，theynowhastenedtoeffectareconciliationbetweentheEmperorandtheKingofHungary。

Butthereconciliationcouldnotbesincere。Thewrongwastoogreattobeforgiven，andRodolphcontinuedtonourishatheartanunextinguishablehatredofMatthias。Withgriefandindignationhebroodedoverthethought，thattheBohemiansceptrewasfinallytodescendintothehandsofhisenemy；andtheprospectwasnotmoreconsoling，evenifMatthiasshoulddiewithoutissue。Inthatcase，Ferdinand，ArchdukeofGraetz，whomheequallydisliked，wastheheadofthefamily。

ToexcludethelatteraswellasMatthiasfromthesuccessiontothethroneofBohemia，hefellupontheprojectofdivertingthatinheritancetoFerdinand’sbrother，theArchdukeLeopold，BishopofPassau，whoamongallhisrelativeshadeverbeenthedearestandmostdeserving。

TheprejudicesoftheBohemiansinfavouroftheelectivefreedomoftheircrown，andtheirattachmenttoLeopold’sperson，seemedtofavourthisscheme，inwhichRodolphconsultedratherhisownpartialityandvindictivenessthanthegoodofhishouse。

Buttocarryoutthisproject，amilitaryforcewasrequisite，andRodolphactuallyassembledanarmyinthebishopricofPassau。

Theobjectofthisforcewashiddenfromall。Aninroad，however，which，forwantofpayitmadesuddenlyandwithouttheEmperor’sknowledgeintoBohemia，andtheoutrageswhichittherecommitted，stirredupthewholekingdomagainsthim。InvainheassertedhisinnocencetotheBohemianEstates；theywouldnotbelievehisprotestations；

vainlydidheattempttorestraintheviolenceofhissoldiery；

theydisregardedhisorders。PersuadedthattheEmperor’sobjectwastoannultheLetterofMajesty，theProtectorsofLibertyarmedthewholeofProtestantBohemia，andinvitedMatthiasintothecountry。

AfterthedispersionoftheforcehehadcollectedatPassau，theEmperorremainedhelplessatPrague，wherehewaskeptshutuplikeaprisonerinhispalace，andseparatedfromallhiscouncillors。Inthemeantime，MatthiasenteredPragueamidstuniversalrejoicings，whereRodolphwassoonafterwardsweakenoughtoacknowledgehimKingofBohemia。

SohardafatebefellthisEmperor；hewascompelled，duringhislife，toabdicateinfavourofhisenemythatverythrone，ofwhichhehadbeenendeavouringtodeprivehimafterhisowndeath。Tocompletehisdegradation，hewasobliged，byapersonalactofrenunciation，toreleasehissubjectsinBohemia，Silesia，andLusatiafromtheirallegiance，andhediditwithabrokenheart。All，eventhosehethoughthehadmostattachedtohisperson，hadabandonedhim。Whenhehadsignedtheinstrument，hethrewhishatupontheground，andgnawedthepenwhichhadrenderedsoshamefulaservice。

WhileRodolphthuslostonehereditarydominionafteranother，theimperialdignitywasnotmuchbettermaintainedbyhim。

EachofthereligiouspartiesintowhichGermanywasdivided，continueditseffortstoadvanceitselfattheexpenseoftheother，ortoguardagainstitsattacks。Theweakerthehandthatheldthesceptre，andthemoretheProtestantsandRomanCatholicsfelttheywerelefttothemselves，themorevigilantnecessarilybecametheirwatchfulness，andthegreatertheirdistrustofeachother。ItwasenoughthattheEmperorwasruledbyJesuits，andwasguidedbySpanishcounsels，toexcitetheapprehensionoftheProtestants，andtoaffordapretextforhostility。

TherashzealoftheJesuits，whichinthepulpitandbythepressdisputedthevalidityofthereligiouspeace，increasedthisdistrust，andcausedtheiradversariestoseeadangerousdesigninthemostindifferentmeasuresoftheRomanCatholics。

EverysteptakeninthehereditarydominionsoftheEmperor，fortherepressionofthereformedreligion，wassuretodrawtheattentionofalltheProtestantsofGermany；andthispowerfulsupportwhichthereformedsubjectsofAustriamet，orexpectedtomeetwithfromtheirreligiousconfederatesintherestofGermany，wasnosmallcauseoftheirconfidence，andoftherapidsuccessofMatthias。